The CWRC Ontology
L'Ontologie CWRC
The CWRC Ontology is the ontology of the Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory.
L'Ontologie CWRC est l'ontologie du Collaboratoire scientifique des écrits du Canada.
Testing
Le Collaboratoire scientifique des écrits du Canada
The Canadian Writing Research Collaboratory
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines
The CWRC ontology bibliography
La bibliographie de l'ontologie CWRC
Members of the Orlando Project
Les membres du projet Orlando
Members of the Orlando Project.
The collective of all persons having written entries for The Orlando Project.
La collective de tous les auteurs du Projet Orlando.
unidentified tagger
tagueur non identifié(e)
Unidentified tagger.
Tagueur non identifié(e)
A human tagger whose identity has not been recorded, for example within legacy datasets.
Un encodeur humain non identifié par le système, par exemple dans des jeux de données hérités.
competency question
question de compétence
A question that can be asked of the ontology and will be used to specify the high level requirements of the CWRC Ontology allowing decisions about structure and components to be made.
Une question qui peut être posée à l’ontologie et servira à déterminer les exigences ontologiques de haut niveau du CSÉC, permettant ainsi de prendre des décisions sur sa structure et ses composantes.
context focus
Indicates the focus or primary subject of a context annotation.
The object of this property, the context focus, becomes the subject of the subject-centric properties that can be derived from context predicates via SPARQL CONSTRUCT queries.
context predicate
Indicates the version of this predicate associated with context annotations, where such annotations exist.
subject-centric predicate
Indicates the version of this predicate associated with triples that do not have annotations, or triples derived from this annotation which take the context focus as their subject.
has ID dependency on
Indicates that the subject entity is dependent upon the identifications made in the object entity. For instance, this predicate can be used to link web annotations with bodies containing RDF triples to annotations that identify entities used in those triples.
range includes
Specifies a particular class type that is acceptable to use for a relation's range.
domain includes
Specifies a particular class type that is acceptable to use for a relation's domain.
has functional relation
Relates terms within the CWRC ontology to external terms that are semantically incommensurate but that may be pragmatically related for processing purposes such as search and retrieval. For example, the gender instance woman relates functionally to appearances:SexISO5218-2 because important datasets employ the ISO5218 value "female". has functional relation can be leveraged by search tools to broaden the results returned.
represents
Relates a concept to ambiguous or overloaded terms, classed as textual label, that designate multivalent and frequently contested concepts. For instance, English identity is a textual label that represents both ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG and English.
represented by
Relates ambiguous or overloaded terms, classed as textual label to two or more particularly contested and related concepts. Often used for cultural form; for instance ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG and English are both represented by English identity.
change set
A change set represents changes or additions made to the ontology by ontology editors or through users where instances were affected. Change sets will also be used to translate and contain Orlando recordInfo instances.
Un change set représente l'ensemble des modifications ou des ajouts apportés à l'ontologie par les éditeur·ice·s de l'ontologie ou par les utilisateur·ice·s qui ayant affecté des instances. Les change set seront également utilisés pour traduire et contenir les instances recordInfo d'Orlando.
affected entity
Affected entities link to the Object or Class that was modified within a change set, this can be any rdf:resource. A change set may have 0 to many affected entities.
altered by
Links a natural person to a change set entry.
made alteration
Links an change set to a natural person
citing
A motivation for W3C Web Annotations for when the user is identifying a citation within a Target. The Body of the Annotation will typically be the item being cited. Citation involves "creating a link between a concept, procedure, or kind of data, and a document or documents," often through the invocation of one or more authors of a publication (Small 1978, 337).
note
A note or annotation, such as a footnote, endnote, or hypertext comment, which may be part of an object, contained in metadata describing it (as for a non-textual object), or linked to it, for instance via a Web Annotation.
note (internal)
A note or annotation intended for internal purposes having to do with such matters as research, composition, or workflow, and not intended for publication.
note (scholarly)
A scholarly note or annotation intended for publication, usually containing ancillary or supplementary content, which may take various forms such as a footnote, endnote, or pop-up note.
natural person
personne physique
A human being who is alive, or was alive at some point in time. Natural persons may be fictionalized, in which case they are also classed as a fictional person.
Être humain en vie ou ayant vécu à un moment donné. Les personnes physiques peuvent être objets de fiction, auquel cas elles sont classées en tant que personne fictive.
fictional person
personne fictive
A person, broadly defined, who features in an imaginative work such as a literary work, as a character or in some other way that distinguishes the reference to them from the natural person who is being represented. In other words, there is a distinction between a simple allusion to a natural person, and the fictionalization of that person within a text or other work of art.
Définie de façon large, personne figurant dans une œuvre créative telle qu'une œuvre littéraire, dans laquelle elle est un personnage ou représentée d'une façon qui diffère de la personne physique à laquelle elle renvoie. Autrement dit, il existe une différence entre la simple allusion à une personne physique et la version romancée de cette personne dans un texte ou tout autre oeuvre d'art.
persona
A persona, unlike a role, cannot be adopted by people generally, but is specific to one natural person, or more rarely several natural persons. A persona is an original creation, often bearing meaning regarding the biographical, historical and sociological context to which its/their creator/s is/are attached. Personas as defined here should not be associated with mental illness or multiple personality disorder, since they are not the product of a distorted or uncontrolled perception of reality. At the heart of a persona is an identity that is interacted with by others and that at times can be confused with an actual natural person. It is incarnated and developed by a natural person, and may have a social, literary, artistic or political activity.
Un persona, contrairement à un rôle, ne peut être incarné par quiconque, mais est spécifique à une personne physique, ou plus rarement à plusieurs d'entre elles. Un persona est une création originale, souvent inspiré par le contexte biographique, historique et sociologique auquel son/ses créateur·ice(s) est/sont attaché·e(s). Les personae tels qu'ils sont définis ici ne doivent pas être confondus avecune maladie mentale ou à un trouble dissociatif de l'identité, car ils ne relèvent pas d'une perception déformée ou incontrôlée de la réalité. Le persona est avant tout une entité identitaire capable d'interargir avec le monde extérieur et qui peut parfois être confondue avec une personne physique réelle. Il est incarné et développé par une personne physique, et peut avoir une activité sociale, littéraire, artistique ou politique.
This definition is indebted to the Text Encoding Initiative's definition of the persona element. See TEI element persona .
has persona
a persona
Associates a persona with one more natural person(s).
Associe un persona à une ou plusieurs personne(s) physique(s).
persona of
persona de
certainty
probabilité
Indicates the degree of certainty associated with some aspect of an assertion, description, identification, or value within a dataset. Equivalent to the "teidata.certainty" range of values of the Text Encoding Initiative.
La probabilité décrit la qualité d'une affirmation dans les données.
The description for this term is indebted to the Text Encoding Initiative's P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange.
has certainty
Associates a level of certainty with an assertion, description, identification, or value.
The description for this term is indebted to the Text Encoding Initiative's P5: Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange. Equivalent to the certainty element of the Text Encoding Initiative.
certainty of
Links a level of certainty to an assertion, description, identification, or value. Related to the certainty element of the Text Encoding Initiative.
has time certainty
Indicates the degree of certainty or precision of the temporal value or values associated with a time-based phenomenon such as an event.
time certainty of
punctive time
temps ponctuel
Indicates a point or location in time. Punctive time can be used to anchor an event that has a duration, such as a wedding or an election. It may be represented by various levels of granularity, for instance a second or a year, or by two dates between which an event was known to occur.
Indique un point ou un emplacement dans le temps. Le temps ponctuel peut être utilisé pour ancrer un événement qui a une durée, comme un mariage ou une élection. Il peut être représenté par différents niveaux de granularité, par exemple une seconde ou une année, ou par deux dates entre lesquelles un événement s'est produit.
interval time
intervalle
Indicates a span of time, usually represented in the form of a start and end date.
Indique une période de temps, généralement représentée par une date de début et de fin.
low certainty
faible probabilité
A predefined value of certainty that represents cases where where an assertion, description, identification, value, or measurement is considered of low quality. Equivalent to the "medium" value for certainty or precision of the Text Encoding Initiative.
Une valeur de probabilité prédéfinie utilisée dans le cas où un fait est considéré comme une information de basse qualité.
medium certainty
probabilité moyenne
A predefined value of certainty that represents cases where where an assertion, description, identification, value, or measurement is considered of medium quality. Equivalent to the "medium" value for certainty or precision of the Text Encoding Initiative.
Une valeur de probabilité prédéfinie utilisée dans le cas où un fait est considéré comme une information de qualité moyenne.
high certainty
forte probabilité
A predefined value of certainty that represents cases where where an assertion, description, identification, value, or measurement is considered of high quality. Equivalent to the "high" value for certainty or precision of the Text Encoding Initiative.
Une valeur de probabilité prédéfinie utilisée dans le cas où un fait est considéré comme une information de haute qualité.
unknown certainty
probabilité inconnue
A predefined value of certainty that is used when one does not want to assert an opinion on certainty or precision, or the degree of certainty or precision is not known. Equivalent to the "unknown" attribute value for certainty of the Text Encoding Initiative.
Une valeur de probabilité prédéfinie utilisée lorsque l'on ne veut pas exprimer d'opinion sur la probabilité.
precision
Indicates the numerical accuracy or precision associated with some aspect of a value, measurement, or identification. For example, with respect to a location, it may indicate how precisely a place being referenced is indicated by the latitude and longitude or the place identifier provided.
has precision
Associates a level of precision with a value. measurement, or identification.
precision of
Links a level of precision to a source
event climate
Categories by which the relevance of an event to one or more broad areas is indicated, usually by an author or editor.
political climate
climat politique
An event having political implications within its geopolitical context, often nationally or internationally. Includes the accession of' monarchs, changing governing structures including revolutions, the establishment of major organizations, and other markers of political change.
Un événement ayant des implications politiques souvent nationales ou internationales au sein de son contexte géopolitique. Inclut l'accession de monarques au pouvoir, les changements de structures de pouvoir y compris les révolutions, l'établissement de grandes organisations et autres manifestations de changement politique.
literary climate
environnement littéraire
An event associated with the climate for literature and writing, broadly conceived, ranging from publication or performance events to information about print technologies and copyright.
Un évènement associé à l'environnement littéraire et à l'écriture, allant de la publication ou à la représentation d'un texte à des informations sur les techniques d'impression et sur les droits d'auteur·e.
british women writers literary climate
climat littéraire des femmes de lettres britanniques
An event associated with British women writers, including the creation, publication and reception of their works, as well as the material conditions and other aspects of their lives.
Un événement associé aux femmes de lettres britanniques, qui inclue la création, la publication et la réception de leurs œuvres, ainsi que les conditions matérielles et autres aspects de leur vie.
social climate
climat social
Events, including indications of larger trends, with social implications, such as shifts in technology, science, medicine, law, or education, domestic conditions such as housing, clothes, or food and food supply, or the changing positions and civic involvements of marginalized groups.
Évènements, incluant des indications sur des tendances au sens large, qui ont des implications sociales telles que les mutations technologiques, scientifiques, médicinales, légales ou éducatives, les conditions de vie domestiques comme le logement, les vêtements, la nourriture ou l'approvisionnement alimentaire, ou encore le changement de positions et les engagements civiques des groupes marginalisés.
event significance
Indications of the degree of importance assigned to an event, often by its author or an editor.
historic significance
importance historique
Indicates a very high level of significance appropriate to a historical overview.
Indique un très haut niveau d'importance qui est approprié pour un résumé historique.
period significance
importance de période
Indicates a moderate level of significance appropriate to an understanding of a historical period.
Indique un niveau d'importance modéré dans la compréhension d'une période historique.
decade significance
importance de décennie
Indicates a low level of significance appropriate to a detailed understanding of a decade.
Indique un faible niveau d'importance pour la compréhension détaillée d'une décennie.
individual significance
importance individuelle
Indicates a level of significance appropriate to an understanding of an individual person or entity.
Indique le niveau d'importance approprié pour la compréhension d'une personne ou d'une entité individuelle.
event
évènement
An event that occurs in time.
has event
Associates a Context with an Event.
event of
Associates an event with a subject or an event with another event.
has location
The location of a thing. For example where an event took place or a organization is located
location Of
Things that are or were at this location at some point in time.
economic context
contexte économique
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Economic Context provide information about and discussions of a person's economic standing, including inheritance, property ownership, pensions, and personal financial disasters. See also the occupation context and cultural form context, particularly for social class context.
Une sous-classe importante de contexte. Les annotations de contexte économique fournissent des informations et des discussions sur la situation économique d'une personne, y compris son héritage, son patrimoine immobilier, ses rentes ou ses désastres financiers personnels. Voir aussi le Contexte d'occupation et le forme culturelle en contexte, en particulier pour le contexte social.
economic event
An event related to an economic context.
economic relationship
relates economically to
Any relationship between persons and other persons or entities related to information about economic standing, such as income, inheritance, property, or poverty.
violence context
contexte de violence
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Violence Context provide information about and discussions of instances of physical, sexual, and undue emotional abuse, whether the person was subject to the violence or perpetrated it. Broadly conceived to include the effect of exposure to violence of which the person was neither perpetrator nor survivor.
Une sous-classe importante de contexte. Les annotations de contexte de violence fournissent des informations et des discussions sur des cas de violence physique, sexuelle et psychologique, que la personne ait été victime ou responsable de violence. Comprise au sens large pour inclure les effets de l'exposition à la violence sur une personne, même si la personne n'y a pas pris part ou n'en a pas été victime.
violence event
An event related to an violence context.
violence association
associated by violence with
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to instances of physical, sexual, and undue emotional violence, whether the subject was the victim or the perpetrator. Broadly conceived to include the effect of exposure to violence of which the person was neither perpetrator nor survivor.
leisure context
contexte de loisirs
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Leisure Context provide information about and discussions of instances of the leisure and social activities of a person including hobbies, sporting life and cultural activities, for example mountain climbing or hosting a literary salon. Notions of leisure are both gendered and classed, and vary by cultural context. This context is meant to capture a person's social life within their larger community, not simply an elite, fashionable social circle.
Une sous-classe importante de contexte. Les annotations entrées en tant que contexte de loisirs fournissent des informations et des discussions sur les loisirs et les activités sociales d'une personne, notamment ses hobbies, sa vie sportive et ses activités culturelles, par exemple l'escalade ou la tenue d'un salon littéraire. Les notions de loisirs dépendent à la fois du genre et de la classe sociale et varient en fonction des cultures. Ce contexte vise à rendre compte de la vie sociale d’une personne au sein de sa communauté au sens large, et non seulement de son cercle social d'élite.
leisure event
An event related to an leisure context.
social relationship
relates socially to
leisure relationship
relates by leisure to
Any relationship between persons and another type of entity such as another person, or an organization, place, or text, often in the context of cultural and social activities, including hobbies and sports.
name context
contexte de nom
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as name context provide the name or names associated with a person, at times with contextual information.
Sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées comme contexte de nom fournissent le ou les noms associés à une personne, parfois accompagnés d'informations contextuelles.
name event
An event related to an name context.
personal name
nom personnel
A person's name, containing a proper noun or proper-noun phrase referring to a person. Has subclasses for types of names such as pseudonym and may have name type, and may have associated parts. This term is derived in part from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema persname element. See also TEI element persName (personal name) .
Un nom de personne qui contient un ou plusieurs noms propres en référence à une personne. Possède des sous-classes pour les types de noms telles que pseudonyme et peut avoir des et des parties associées. Ce terme est en partie dérivé du schéma P5 de l'élément persname du Text Encoding Initiative. Voir l'élément persName du TEI (nom personnel).
name
has name
Indicates a person's name.
has name part
Indicates a component of a name. Order of name parts is indicated by has sort order
has sort order
Indicates the order in which the parts of a name occur.
name of
name part of
sort order of
name type
An aspect of a person's name, including its use, connotations, or significance.
authorial name
nom d'auteur·e
A name under which a writer wrote or published.
Un nom sous lequel un·e auteur·e a écrit ou publié.
preferred name
nom d'usage
Indicates the form of name preferred by an authority or institution.
Indique la forme du nom utilisée par une autorité ou un institution.
preferred by
Indicates the authority or institution by which the name form is preferred.
nickname
surnom
Indicates familiar, humorous, or abusive name given to a person, applied instead of or in addition to their real name. May have name type, abusive name or honorific name.
Indique un nom familier, comique ou abusif donné à une personne, venant remplacer ou s'ajouter à son vrai nom. Peut avoir l'attribut , nom abusif ou nom honorifique.
abusive name
nom abusif
A name constructed with the intent to abuse, satirize, or slander. For example, Constance Gore-Booth was known in the press by the nickname of "Red Countess" and this nickname had negative connotations.
Un nom inventé dans l'intention d'abuser, de tourner en satire ou de calomnier une personne. Par exemple, Constance Gore-Booth était connue dans la presse sous le surnom de "Red Countess" qui avait une connotation négative.
honorific name
nom honorifique
A positive name which celebrates or honours a person.
Un nom à connotation positive qui glorifie ou honnore une personne.
cryptic name
nom cryptique
A name deliberately obscured, as in an anagram. Cryptic names have lexical meaning such as "The Scotch Milkmaid,""A Housewife," or "A Placid Reader."
Un nom qu'on a délibérément chercher à cacher, par un exemple dans un anagramme. Les noms cryptiques ont une signification lexicale, par exemple "The Scotch Milkmaid", "A Housewife" ou "A Placid Reader".
local name
nom local
A name with a geographic connotation, for example, "Julian of Norwich."
Nom avec une connotation géographique, par exmple "Julienne de Norwich."
romance name
nom de romance
Indicates cases where the person has a name associated with writing romances, or with romantic writing, for example, Swift's Stella.
Indique des cas où le nom d'une personne est associé à des romances ou des écrits romantiques, par exemple la Stella de Swift.
literary name
nom littéraire
A name applied to a writer by others, for example in reviews or at readings, which orginate in the person's status as a writer.
Un nom attribué par d'autres à un·e auteur·e, par example dans des critiques ou lors de lectures, prenant son origine dans le statut d'écrivain·e de la personne.
familiar name
nom familier
A version of a name used by those familiar with a person, such as family, friends, or co-workers.
Variante du nom utilisée par les individus familiers avec une personne, telles que la famille, les ami·e·s ou les collègues.
pseudonym
pseudonyme
Indicates both names and descriptive phrases (e.g. "A Lover of Her Sex" is a pseudonym for Mary Astell) used in publishing to conceal the identity of the author or to represent a persona.
Indique à la fois les noms et les locutions descriptives (par exemple "A Lover of Her Sex" est le pseudonyme de Mary Astell) utilisés dans les publications pour dissimuler l'indentité de l'auteur·e ou pour représenter un persona.
birthname
nom de naissance
Indicates the name a person was assigned at birth.
Indique le nom assigné à la naissance.
forename
prénom
A subject's given or baptismal name. This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema forename element. See also TEI element forename .
Le nom attribué ou le nom de baptême d'une personne. Ce terme est dérivé de l'élément 'forename' du schéma P5 du Text Encoding Initiative. Voir l'élément TEI forename.
surname
nom de famille
A subject's last name at birth, often a family (inherited) name, as opposed to a forename or nickname." This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema 'surname' element. See also TEI element surname .
Le nom de famille d'une personne attribué à sa naissance, souvent un nom hérité de sa famille, à la différence du prénom ou du surnom . Ce terme est dérivé de l'élément 'surname' du schéma P5 du Text Encoding Initiative. Voir TEI element surname .
professional title
titre professionnel
A person's professional role (e.g. Doctor Jane Smith) or designates membership in a professional society (e.g. John Smith, Esquire).
La fonction professionnelle d'une personne (par exemple Docteure Jane Smith) ou nom qui désigne l'appartenance à un société professionnelle (par exemple John Smith, Esquire).
indexed name
nom indexé
Name under which a person's work is indexed by an institution or organization.
Nom sous le travail d'une personne est indexé par une insitution ou une organisation.
indexed by
Indicates an organization's use of this name form in its index.
married name
nom marital
A surname adopted in marriage.
Nom de famille adopté après le mariage.
religious name
nom religieux
A name acquired through a religious role or practice.
Un nom acquis par le biais d'une fonction ou d'une pratique religieuse.
royal name
nom royal
A name based on royal status.
Un nom tiré d'un statut royal.
self constructed name
nom construit
A self-chosen name used in everyday life rather than only on title-pages as is the case for a pseudonym.
Indique un nom choisi par la personne elle-même et utilisé dans la vie courante plutôt que seulement dans les pages de titre, comme c'est le cas d'un pseudonyme.
styled name
nom stylisé
A courtesy title associated with the British or other peerage.
Un nom de courtoisie associé avec les Britanniques ou autre pairie.
titled name
nom de titre
A formal title in the British and other peerages, including of a life peer. Peeresses may be described as titled, although in strict terms, unless one holds a title "in her own right", these are styled names or courtesy titles.
Un nom formel chez les Britanniques et autres pairies, incluant le Pair à vie. Les pairesses peuvent être désignées avec des titres, même au sens strict ceux-ci sont des noms stylisés ou des titres de courtoisie, à moins qu'une pairesse détienne un titre "à part entière."
system name
nom de système
A name by which a person holds an account for a platform or service.
Un nom avec lequel une personne détient un compte sur une plateforme ou un service.
role name
nom de rôle
A name which "indicates that a person has a particular role or position in society, such as an official title or rank." This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema for the 'roleName' element. See TEI element roleName .
Un nom qui "signale qu'une personne possède un rôle ou une position particulière dans la société, telle qu'un titre ou un rang officiel." Ce terme est dérivé du schéma P5 du Text Encoding Initiative pour l'élément 'roleName'. Voir TEI element roleName .
additional name
nom additionnel
An additional name, "such as a nickname, epithet, or alias." This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema for the addName element. See TEI element addName (additional name) .
Un nom supplémentaire, "tel qu'un surnom, une épithète ou un alias". Ce terme est dérivé du schéma Text Encoding Initiative P5 pour l'élément addName. Voir l'élément TEI addName TEI element addName (additional name) .
name link
particule de nom
"A connecting phrase or link used within a name but not regarded as part of it, such as van der or of." This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema for the 'NameLink' element. See TEI element nameLink (name link) .
"Une locution ou un lien de connexion utilisé dans un nom mais n'étant pas considéré comme partie intégrante de ce nom, par exemple Van Der ou de." Ce terme est dérivé du schéma P5 du Text Encoding Initiative pour l'élément 'NameLink'. Voir l'élément TEI TEI element nameLink (name link) .
generational name
nom générationnel
A name component used to distinguish otherwise similar names on the basis of the relative ages or generations of the persons named." This term is derived from the Text Encoding Initiative P5 schema for the genName element. See TEI element genName (generational name component) .
Composant de nom utilisé pour distinguer des noms similaires, en fonction de l'âge ou de la génération relatifs aux personnes portant un nom. "Ce terme est dérivé du schéma P5 du Text Encoding Initiative pour l'élément genName. Voir l'élément TEI genName TEI element genName (generational name component) .
occupation context
Contexte d'occupation
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as occupation provide information about and discussions of positions and activities significant to a person's life, including paid, unpaid, and voluntary work both beyond and within the home. Although writing as a career sometimes overlaps with occupation, literary activities are often described in writing contexts.
Une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotation de Contexte d'occupation fournissent des informations et des discussions sur les positions et les activités importantes de la vie d'une personne, incluant son travail rémunéré, non rémunéré et volontaire aussi bien en dehors qu'au sein du foyer. Même si une carrière dans l'écriture est parfois considérée comme une occupation, l'activité littéraire est souvent décrite dans les contextes d'écriture.
occupation event
An event related to an occupation context.
occupation
A position, activity, job, or profession, whether paid, unpaid, or voluntary, often related to and at times overlapping with a person's social class.
Une position, une activité, un emploi ou une profession, qu'elle soit rémunérée, non rémunérée ou sur la base du volontariat, souvent liée et parfois recoupant avec la classe sociale d'une personne.
paid occupation
family based occupation
volunteer occupation
occupation income
employment
occupation relationship
relates by occupation to
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to occupation or employment.
has occupation
Indicates a regular position or activity significant to a person's life, including paid, unpaid, and voluntary work.
occupation of
has volunteer occupation
Indicates a regular role or activity that was voluntary rather than paid, including philanthropic activity.
volunteer occupation of
has paid occupation
Indicates a position or activity for which a person was paid.
paid occupation of
has family-based occupation
Indicates a position or activity that was family-directed, typically bread-winning businesses rather than domestic work although the two may overlap.
family-based occupation of
has occupation income
Describes or provides information regarding a person's incomes related to an occupation.
occupation income of
has employer
Indicates a person's employer.
has employee
bookbinder
book binder
bookbinding
sea captain
ferryboat captain
ship's captain
whaling captain
automobileIndustry
car industry
car part manufacturer
charity worker
charitable causes
charitable donation
charitable giving
charitable worker
charity
charity administrator
charity agent
charity board member
charity campaigner
charity co ordinator
charity management
charity organiser
charity organizer
charity performer
charity representative
charity school supporter
charity speaker
charity work
church and community work
director of charity
president of charity
raise funds for a variety of wartime charities
vice president of charity
charititable activity
charity organization society
childbirth charity organiser
established a soup kitchen for starving peasants during the great famine
running church or charity bazaars
shelter provision
text distributor
work with women and the poor
tax official
commissioner of taxes
customs inspector
customs officer
customs official
exciseman
public intellectual
intellectual
labour intellectual
learned woman
polymath
rationalist
witness
character witness
expert witness
witness for the defence
writer
amateur playwright
amateur writer
author
biographer
blurb writer
chief copywriter
children's writer
commemorative writer
contributor
cookbook writer
copywriter
diarist
dramatist
educational writer
essayist
feature writer
legal writer
letter writer
literary career
literary collaborator
mathematical writer
media comedy writer
medical writer
memoirist
novelist
pedagogical author
playwright
poet
poetry
polemical writer
political poet
political writer
professional writer
public relations writer
radio scriptwriter
religious poet
religious writer
satirist
scholarly writer
screenwriter
script writer
scriptwriter
short story writer
songwriter
textbook writer
travel author
travel writer
wrote
amateur drama
art exhibition writer
automatic writing
diarist and memoirist
freelance advertising copywriter
letter writers
occasional contributors
part time novelist
philanthropic writer
populariser of poetry
published
published a sermon
published two books of sceptical humanist philosophy
quaker writer
vice president of the european writers' congress
writers
writing poetry
writing pulp fiction
writing small books for indian readers
wrote extensively on india
type setter
typesetter
curator
curator of art exhibitions
gallery curator
museum curator
editing
assistant editor
associate editor
co editor
colonial editor
consulting editor
copy editor
deputy editor
editor
editorial assistant
editorial board member
editorial reader
encyclopedia editor
fashion editor
foreign editor
founding editor
journal editor
literary editor
magazine editor
managing editor
newspaper editor
parish magazine editor
part time editor
periodical editor
poetry editor
proofreader
publisher's editor
publishers' editor
science editor
sub editor
trade journal editor
edited
edited school texts
editor for religious society
editor of the women's page
editorial
editorship
news subeditor
newspaper sub editor
engraver
wood engraver
engineering
aeronautical engineer
chief engineer
civil engineer
electrical engineer
engineer
engineering firm
marine engineer
mining engineer
motor engineer
radio engineer
railway engineer
literary forger
publishing
assistant in publishing
journal assistant
magazine director
publisher
publisher's reader
reader of manuscripts
director of time and tide
member of the editorial advisory committee
publisher and bookseller
publisherapos;s reader
printing
printer
printing press manager
in printing
printing and bookselling businesses
transcriber
translator
interpreter
free lance translations
aristocrat
baron
baronet
midwife
midwifery organizer
clothworker
astronomer
amateur astronomer
assistant astronomer
geologist
life scientist
anatomist
bacteriologist
physiologist
professor
assistant lecturer
emeritus professor
law lecturer
lecturer
lecturer in modern languages
professor of archaeology
professor of divinity
professor of english
professor of english language and literature
professor of entomology
professor of fine arts
professor of pathology
professor of poetry
professor of political economy
professor of psychology
professor of singing
university professor
an active lecturer
british council lecturer
chichele professor of modern history
lecture
lucasian professor of mathematics
professor of poetry at oxford
regius professor of divinity
taught at oxford, then at cambridge
university teacher of english
abolitionist
abolitionist activist
abolitionist worker
rebel
freedom fighter
revolutionary
saboteur
reformist or revolutionary
literary prize adjudicator
adjudicator of literary award
chair of literary prize panel
judge of literary award
judge of literary prize
literary adjudicator
literary awards judge
literary judge
literary prize judge
judge for literary prize
judge; literary competition
literary award judge
literary competition judge
literature advocate
knight
botanist
assistant botanist
botany
botany enthusiast
radio industry
educational radio producer
educational radio programmer
radio announcer
radio broadcaster
radio performer
radio producer
recorded programmes assistant
television industry
television director
business owner
bar owner
barbershop owner
coffee shop owner
colliery owner
factory owner
magazine proprietor
mill owner
mine owner
music shop owner
newspaper magnate
newspaper proprietor
owner of food outlet
proprietor
sex shop owner
shop owner
store owner
mail order business
news agency proprietor
pottery magnate
cobbler
apprentice shoemaker
shoemaker
shoemaker's assistant
glover
tailor
garment worker
literary conservationist
literary conservation
catering
caterer
catering assistant
catering manager
leather worker
leatherworker
saddler
tanner
worker in leather
saddler, shoemaker
coach
coach of the cambridge rowing crew
educational administration
academic programme administrator
college principal
college vice principal
dean
deputy head of school
education
education campaigner
education liaison officer
educational officer
educational theorist
educator
examiner
external examiner
headmaster
headmistress
inspectress of schools
lord rector
marker
principal
principal of institute
provost
school administration
school director
school governor
school management
school monitor
school organizer
school proprietor
school supervisor
school vice president
sunday school superintendent
sunday school worker
superintendent
superintendent of schools
university chancellor
vice principal
associate of newnham college
college governor
college vice president
dean of trinity college, oxford
demonstrator of anatomy
director of the creative writing program
director of the tulsa center for the study of women's literature
education of her own children
establish schools
established a school for english and american boys
founded st boniface school
founded the derry and raphoe diocesan institution for the education of the deaf and dumb
master of the free school
member of the executive committee of girton college
opened their sunday school
pedagogic theorist
principal of queen's college
principal of the chelsea art school
rector of edinburgh university
running their school
taught
teach
teacher
art instructor
art teacher
assistant schoolmistress
bible teaching
classical tutor
classics teacher
creative writing teacher
dancing teacher
educational pioneer
elocution teacher
french teacher
geography teacher
giving courses
home educator
housemaster
instructor
music teacher
piano teacher
pupil teacher
religious teacher
school mistress
schoolmaster
schoolmistress
schoolteacher
senior english mistress
singing teacher
sub preceptor
sunday school mistress
sunday school teacher
teacher's assistant
teaching
teaching aide
tutor
tutor in divinity
tutor in languages and belles lettres
tutoring
university tutor
weapons instructor
writing instructor
assistant mistress
first assistant mistress
academic
academician
humanist scholar
scholar
academic and social critic
first woman in scotland to earn a university certificate
greek and hebrew examiner
oxford don
governess
dairy work
milker
milkwoman
colonial official
colonial administrator
colonial civil servant
colonial magistrate
colonial manager
colonial officer
colonial organizer
colonial prime minister
lieutenantGovernor
chairman of the east india company
india agent
lord deputy of ireland
registrar of the naval prize court in bermuda
upper canada's first vice chancellor
viceroy of india
viceroy of ireland
government official
civic work
civil servant
coroner
county court bailiff
custos rotulorum
distributor of stamps
exchequer clerk
government employee
health officer
local government clerk
member of the indian civil service
poor law guardian
prison governor
prison guard
queen's champion
queen's messenger
registrar
registrar of births and deaths
resident magistrate
sanitary inspector
secretary to parliamentary commission
senior civil servant
sequestrator
sheriff clerk
town planner
traffic superintendent
deputy director of the women's branch of the ministry of agriculture
deputy keeper of her majesty's records
deputy theatre censor
director general of the tapu land registry
east india company officer
magistrate for the county of middlesex
master of the savoy
secretary of the fine arts commission
secretary of the royal united service institution
secretary to the lord keeper of the great seal of england
higher government
cabinet minister
chancellor of the exchequer
civil lord of the admiralty
colonial governor
colonial secretary
congressman
director general of finance
foreign secretary
foreign service
government minister
governor of barbados
governor of bombay
governor of tasmania
labour minister
league of nations delegate
legislator
lieutenant governor of guernsey
lord keeper
lord keeper of the great seal of england
lord lieutenant
lord lieutenant of ireland
master of the horse
member of congress
member of the house of lords
minister of food
parliamentary private secretary
president of the united nations general assembly
privy councillor
regent
royal adviser
royal lieutenant
royal representative
secretary of state
secretary of state for ireland
secretary of state for war
senator
state governor
statesman
under secretary for the colonies
vice chancellor
warden of the mint
ambassador and plenipotentiary
bavarian minister
high commissioner of south africa
scottish education secretary
served on the royal commission on capital punishment
ulster king of arms
vice president of the usa
local government
alderman
city councillor
city counsellor
council member
councillor
local councillor
local government magnate
local government official
local politician
town corporator
assistant director of education in the london county council
lieutenant of the tower of london
london county councillor
member of the bury st edmunds borough council
radicalist member of the london school board
recorder of newcastle under lyme
town corporator or councillor
regional government
county councillor
deputy lord lieutenant
deputy recorder of northamptonshire
assistant secretary for education in northamptonshire
deputy lieutenant of dunbartonshire
governor of massachusetts
high sheriff for county antrim
lord president of the council of the marches of wales
secretary for education in oxfordshire
attorney general
attorney general of ireland
commissioner
bankruptcy commissioner
commissioner of bankruptcy
commissioner of customs
commissioner of inland revenue
commissioner of the dockyards
customs commissioner
excise commissioner
parliamentary commissioner
magistrate
judicial officer
justice of the peace
dentist
nursing
carer
nurse
nursing aide
nursing organizer
nursing supervisor
vad
vad worker
fn helped found the east london nursing society.
in 1877 she nursed george odger, the first parliamentary labour candidate, during his fatal illness.
nurses
medical doctor
cardiologist
doctor
eye and ear specialist
eye surgeon
gastric surgeon
general practitioner
gynaecologist
homeopathic doctor
immunologist
medical practice
medical practitioner
obstetrician
orthopaedic surgeon
physician
royal physician
surgeon
surgeon general
surgery
physician, surgeon
red cross
red cross aide
red cross representative
red cross worker
lord chamberlain
monarch
king
queen
governor general
governor general of canada
governor general of india
boarding house keeper
boarding house manager
established boarding houses
goldsmith
skinner
lawyer
apprentice attorney
attorney
barrister
chancery barrister
solicitor
patents lawyer
biologist
conchologist
entomologist
bookclub participation
book club founder
book club organizer
book society member
bookclub president
member of the new english art club
arts manager
art acquisitions officer
arts administrator
arts centre director
arts festival director
musical manager
director of the national gallery
joint chairman of the writers' guild of great britain
statistician
medical statistician
food distribution
food distributor
food supplier
provision merchant
provisioner
coastguard
coast guard
airman
flyer
prospector
composer
composed
composer of church music
wet nurse
public speaker
orator
political speaker
public lecturer
public speaking
speaking tour
renowned orator
patron
literary patron
patron of actors
patron of literature
patron of science
patron of the arts
theatre patron
charity patron
volunteer
civil defence volunteer
food kitchen volunteer
food volunteer
hospital volunteer
school volunteer
volunteer counsellor
volunteer office work
volunteer personnel work
volunteer soldier
war volunteer
war volunteers
voluntary aid detachment
volunteer cook and waitress
volunteering for the newly formed babies club
advocate
advocate for the poor
animal rights advocate
anti poverty
campaigner against capital punishment
campaigner for child welfare
civil rights
emigration promoter
free speech advocate
maternity advocate
prisoners' advocate
promote temperance
promotion of women's work
sunday school promoter
continued to encourage women to enter politics through various efforts
co-op organizer
co op organizer
commune organizer
lobbyist
political lobbyist
international political lobbyist
mayor
lady mayoress
lord mayor
lord mayor of london
mayor of cork
mayor of norwich
mayor of their home town
member of parliament
conservative mp
labour mp
liberal member of parliament
liberal mp
member of parliament and politician
member of parliament for nottingham
members of parliament
speaker (parliamentary)
speaker of the house of commons
speaker of the house of lords
speaker of the legislature
speaker of the senate of northern ireland
pacifist
conscientious objector
worker for pacifism and the league of nations union
public reader
dramatic readings
performance reader
poetry reader
poetry reading
poetry readings
poetry recital
reader
reader in public
reader of poetry
recitalist
recitateur
reciter
gave readings
public reading
reader aloud
book production
missionary work
missionaries
missionary
missionary administrator
missionary supporter
missionary worker
founded a church missionary society auxiliary
supporter of missionary activity
parish work
parish worker
management of her husband's parish
religiousOfficial
anglican bishop
anglican clergyman
anglican priest
archbishop
archbishop of canterbury
archdeacon
assistant minister of religion
bishop
canon
cardinal
chaplain
chief rabbi
clergyman
clergymen
clergyperson
curate
deacon
dissenting minister
episcopalian preacher
jesuit priest
minister
minister of religion
official (of religion)
preacher
prebendary
presbyterian minister
priest
private almoner
quaker minister
rector
reverend
synagogue official
vicar
archbishop of armagh and primate of all ireland
chaplain of the lock hospital
dean of wells
english bishop of natal
ministers
prebendary (a kind of canon or church official)
rev.
trained for the priesthood
saint
prophet
chemist
industrial chemist
chemist and immunologist
research chemist
computer scientist
mathematics
amateur mathematician
mathematical interests
mathematician
domestic servant
house servant
housemaid
indentured servant
kitchen scullion
lady's maid
upper servant
valet
manservant
butler
chauffeur
doorman
footman
groom
baker
pastrycook
blacksmith
brewer
brewers
jeweller
lithographer
mason
stonemason
plumber
pottery
pottery manufacturer
spinner
cotton spinner
spinning
upholsterer
watchmaker
weaver
handloom weaver
power loom weaver
stocking weaver
orphanage work
orphanage manager
orphanage principal
orphanage worker
refugee work
refugee worker
relief work
famine relief
jewish relief work
relief worker
war relief
co organizer of relief efforts
found the women's defence relief corps
founded a society for the relief of indigent old age
international relief worker
organized war relief
receive evacuees
war relief aid
settlement work
settlement worker
bicyclist
bicycling
cricket
cricket team captain
cricketer
hunter
fox hunter
foxhunter
hunting
rabbit shooting
big game hunting
fox hunting
foxhunting
master of hounds
mountaineering
climbing
mountain climber
mountaineer
climber or mountaineer
riding
rode side saddle
merchant taylor
actor manager
shipping
ship owner
shipper
shipping merchant
shipping owner
railway work
railway clerk
railway guard
railway promoter
railway worker
station master
stationmaster
worked for the nigerian railway
munitions worker
air raid warden
critic
art critic
drama critic
film critic
literary critic
music critic
television critic
theatre critic
assistant drama critic
reviewer
book reviewer
film reviewer
wrote reviews
reviewed books
propagandist
war propagandist
to spread pro british propaganda
cleaner
cleaning lady
domestic cleaner
housekeeper
household management
housekeeping
mistress of a household
state housekeeper
copyist
copyist of illuminated manuscripts
legal copyist
music copyist
scientific copyist
copyists of illuminated manuscripts
linguist
grammarian
linguistic reader
linguistic researcher
philosopher
academic philosopher
amateur philosopher
philosophy
scientist
amateur scientist
lab demonstrator
laboratory assistant
laboratory worker
natural scientist
scientific assistant
amateur scientist, botanist
astronomical assistant
lab assistant
scientific interests
scientist, particularly well known for his work in genetics
courtier
bed chamber woman
groom of the chamber
keeper of the robes
lady in waiting
lady of the bedchamber
chamberlain to the king of bavaria
data processing
data recorder
encoder
beggar
computer work
computer programmer
database manager
needlework
embroiderer
knitting
needlewoman
needlework artist
accountant
agent and accountant
book keeper
household accountant
keeping accounts
management accountant
family budgeting
family financial manager
finance
bank clerk
bank director
bank employee
bank manager
bank president
banker
clerk in a bank
financial manager
financier
investment banker
merchant banker
money lender
ship broker
director and chairman of the bank of new zealand
director of the bank of england
teller at the bank of england
archivist
music
amateur pianist
celloist
choirmaster
choirmistress
church choirmaster
concert pianist
cornet
jazz musician
musician
organist
pianist
piano tuner
violinist
cathedral chorister
musician, composer
playing the piano
diplomat
ambassador
attaché
british consul
consul general
diplomatic negotiation
diplomatist
envoy
ambassador to constantinople
ambassador to france
ambassador to spain
consul general in london for hawaii
oriental secretary
government
elected
government adviser
representative
served in the legislature
government fishery advisor
political science
political scientist
political theorist
head of state
president of the usa
prime minister
presidents of the united states
prime minister of the cape colony
researcher
research
research assistant
scholarship
social researcher
mistress
reformer
agricultural reformer
army reformer
divorce law reformer
educational reformer
health care reformer
housing reformer
land improver
language reformer
law reformer
liturgical reformer
medical reformer
penal reformer
political reformer
prison reformer
publishing reformer
religious reformer
sanitary reformer
sex reformer
social reformer
dressmaking
clothes mending
dressmaker
dressmaker's apprentice
dressmaking business
seamstress
silk manufacturer
textile manufacturer
dressmaking; seamstress
master or mistress of the revels
master of the revels
mistress of the revels
master of the revels in ireland
visual artist
amateur artist
amateur painter
artist
colourist
commercial artist
craft artist
etcher
historical painter
illuminator
landscape painter
miniaturist
painter
portraitist
printmaker
sculptor
watercolourist
wax modeller
artist, painter
chinaware painter
etcher, artist
feather artisan
illustrator and landscape painter
miniature portrait painter
painter in enamel
activist
activist against slavery
activist for dissent
activist for the disabled
anti poverty activist
anti slavery activist
anti vivisectionist
child labour activist
christian social activist
civil rights activist
continuing education activist
educational activist
housing activist
human rights activist
labour activist
library activist
media activist
medical mission activist
peace activist
political activist
poverty activist
protest organiser
resistance activist
social activist
temperance activist
workhouse activist
adjudicator
awards judge
contest judge
selector for the poetry book society
administrator
administration
administrative officer
hospital administrator
advertising
advertising manager
assistant press officer
literary publicist
music publicity
political publicist
press assistant
press officer
public relations
public relations specialist
publicist
publicity
publicity agent
publicity assistant
publicity manager
publicity officer
religious publicist
junior press officer
publisher's advertising manager
quaker publicist
agent
chief agent
aircraft industry
aeroplane manufacturer
alternative medicine
herbalist
ambulance worker
ambulance assistant
ambulance driver
drove an ambulance
ambulance brigade organizer
ambulance brigade president
appraiser
project appraiser
archaeologist
palaeontologist
paleontologist
director of archaeology in the department of antiquities
architecture
architect
architectural draftsman
architectural restoration
draftsman
draughter
draughtsman
royal architect
assistant
administrative assistant
personal assistant
full time programme assistant
association involvement
club leader
club president
clubman
clubperson
clubwoman
freemason
president of professional association
president of society
president of the society of authors
secretary of literary society
society director
society member
society president
society secretary
society vice president
vice president of society
president of the british club for belgian soldiers
president of the herdwick association
president of the literary ladies club
president of the society of women journalists
auctioneer
bankrupt
grande scale bankrupt
beautician
barber
cosmetician
hairdresser
beauty
pre raphaelite muse
bibliophile
bill collector
board member
broadcaster
broadcasting
bullion carrier
bursar
business
business agent
business assistant
business entrepreneur
business manager
businessman
businesswoman
company president
entrepeneur
entrepreneur
family business
industrialist
industrialists
market research
marketing
small businessman
industrialist/manager
market researcher
small entrepreneur
butcher
slaughterman
shochet or ritual butcher
calligraphy
calligrapher
calligraphist
captain
care giver
caregiver
elder care
family carer
home care giver
home carer
attendant to the blind
devoting herself to the care of her elderly father
cartoonist
caricaturist
political cartoonist
censor
bowdlerizer
chairperson
chair
chair of prize panel
chair of social anthropology
chair of society
chair of the greater london arts literature panel
chair of women's organization
chairman
chairwoman
committee chair
committee chairman
deputy chairman
society chair
vice chairman
chair of academy
chair of international organization
chairman of the authors' lending and copyright society or alcs
chairman of the photographic society
vice chair of the british copyright council
vice chairman of the copyright licensing agency
chaperone
chess
international chess master
childcare
au pair
child care
child carer
child minding
child rearing
child recreation manager
childcare provider
childcare worker
children's home manager
nursemaid
nursery manager
childcare guru
worker for children
worker with children
childcare work
classicist
amateur classicist
classical scholar
clerical work
association secretary
clerical
clerical officer
clerk
club secretary
college secretary
executive secretary
factory secretary
legal secretary
pay clerk
private secretary
receptionist
scrivener
secretarial work
secretary
shorthand typist
stenographer
town clerk
typist
warehouse clerk
secretary and registrar
clothing production
cotton manufacturer
glove manufacturer
hosier
linen manufacturer
weaving manufacturer
woollen manufacturer
collector
anthropological collector
antiquarian
antiquary
art collector
book collector
coin collector
zoological collector
collect irish folklore
collecting
collector of china and paintings
committee member
committee man
committee president
committee woman
school board member
companion
humble companion
paid companion
confectioner
confectionery production and sale
connoisseur
art connoisseur
conservationist
construction
builder
building
building improver
carpenter
construction supervisor
gothic builder bricklayer
house builder
renovator
road construction supervisor
shipwright
builder, architect
clerk of the king's works
clerk of the works
consultant
management consultant
drug adviser and consultant
contractor
cooking
cook
cooper
corporate or organizational director
company director
deputy director
honorary director
managing director
chairman of railway company
president of the baby and foundling hospital
counsellor
advisor
careers advisor
counseling
counselled hundreds of women
craftsperson
arts and crafts
craft work
craftswoman
furniture restorer
handicraft
handicrafts
shellwork
decorator of reproduction furniture
criminal
blackmailer
con man
convict
thief
transported criminal
blackmailer extortionist
confidence trickster
dance
ballet dancer
choreographer
chorus girl
dancer
dancer and choreographer
decoder
cable decoder
cipher breaker
code breaker
cryptologist
delivery person
dispatch rider
errand boy
messenger girl
newspaper deliverer
designer
fabric designer
gothic designer
graphic designer
house decoration
housing designer
interior decorator
interior design
interior designer
prosthetics designer
director
directors
diver
dockyard work
dock manager
docker
docks manager
dockyard labourer
longshoreman
wharfinger
domestic work
helping at home
kitchen work
managing her households
meal provider
care of parents
draper
linen draper
master draper
drinking
alcoholic
drinking problem
daily drinking bouts
drinking and chasing women
drug abuse
drug addict
drug user
laudanum addict
educational popularizer
educationist
elevator operator
elucutionist
elocutionist
employer
domestic employer
employment agent
work force recruiter
equine activity
clerk of the course
dressage
horse breeder
horse racing
horse trainer
horsebreaker
horseman
horsemaster
horsewoman
racehorse owner
event organizer
bazaar organizer
community organizer
entertainment organizer
exhibition organizer
festival organizer
organizer
peace congress organizer
poetry organizer
demonstration organiser
local organiser
organized evening lectures for women
exhibitions
exhibition organiser
exhibitor
bbc drama producer
governor of the bbc
explorer
adventurer
factory worker
assembly line worker
factory hand
factory work
kiln fireman
mill worker
black borderer
worked briefly at a wine bottling plant
farming
agricultural adviser
agriculturalist
apricot ranch
beekeeper
cattle breeder
cattleman
corn inspector
dairy farmer
dairying
farm labour
farm labourer
farm manager
farm worker
farmer
farmers
fruit farmer
fruit picker
husbandman
part time farmer
pig breeder
pig farmer
ranch hand
rancher
sheep breeder
shepherd
smallholder
sugar planter
tenant farmer
yeoman farmer
fashion
fashion buyer
fashion consultant
fashion designer
leader of fashion
fellow
creative writing fellow
creative writing fellowships
fellow of the royal society
visiting fellow
compton fellow of creative writing
creative writing fellowship
fellow of king's college
fellow of the institute of hospital administration
fellow student at the regent street polytechnic
film industry
continuity clerk
documentarian
documentary film maker
documentary maker
film actor
film assistant
film director
film extra
film maker
film performer
film producer
film stand in
firefighter
fire watcher
first aid
first aid work
fisherman
fish handler
fisherwoman
fishmonger
foster-parent
foster mother
foster parent
founder
church founder
college founder
company founder
founder of arts centre
founder of benefit society
founder of chapel
founder of charitable organization
founder of club
founder of college
founder of convent
founder of educational organization
founder of literary prize
founder of literary society
founder of prostitutes' home
founder of relief organization
founder of savings bank
founder of woman's refuge
founder of women's organization
founder of writer' centre
health society founder
hospice founder
hospital founder
library founder
magazine founder
newspaper founder
nursing home founder
orphanage founder
periodical founder
refuge founder
school founder
society founder
sunday school founder
theatre founder
university founder
charity founder
co founder of arlen house press
co founder of, and remained closely involved in, the writers' action group
educational institution founder
founded
founded a discussion society for ladies
founder of charitable society
founder of school
founder of schools
founder of the key west writers' workshop
founder of the magazines vanity fair and the lady
founder or co founder
founding directors
founding member of the london bach choir
founding the irish confederation
literary society founder
fundraiser
educational fundraiser
fundraising
hospital fundraiser
gambling
gambler
stock exchange gambler
gardener
garden design
gardening
hedge setter
horticulturalist
horticulturist
landscape gardener
gastronome
genealogist
family genealogist
genealogical scholar
gentleman
country gentleman
geographer
glass worker
glass stainer
glassworks
glazier
stained glass designer
grocer
royal grocer
guardian
haberdasher
handwriting expert
healthcare provider
contact healing
dental assistant
health service administrator
health worker
healthcare worker
hospital aide
hospital almoner
hospital director
hospital porter
hospital worker
inoculator
medical administrator
medical aide
medical assistant
medical officer
medical worker
medicine
assistant in medical care
medical coder
medical pioneer
support an infirmary
historian
architectural historian
art historian
family archivist
family historian
furniture historian
historical researcher
historical scholar
irish historian
local historian
medievalist
music historian
historians
historical expertise
hospitality
alehouse keeper
cafe manager
club employee
coffee house keeper
guesthouse keeper
hotel keeper
hotel manager
hotel proprietor
hotel worker
hotelier
inn
innkeeper
lodging house keeper
restaurant manager
restaurant owner
tavern keeper
hostel forewoman
pot girl
hostess
entertaining
literary hostess
nightclub hostess
salonniere
salonnière
society hostess
hostess for her father
house painter
house sitter
housework
humanitarian work
international aid worker
distribution of medical supplies
hypnotist
hypnotism
illustrator
advertisement illustrator
illustrator of children's books
creator of etchings to illustrate
insurance
insurance agent
insurance broker
insurance clerk
insurance collector
insurance inspector
insurance manager
insurance salesman
insurance underwriter
intelligence work
espionage worker
intelligence
intelligence agent
intelligence expert
intelligence officer
secret agent
spy
spying
interviewer
inventor
inventing
technological innovator
investor
financial backer
market speculator
share holder
speculator
stock investor
stockbroker
ironmaster
ironmonger
journalist
columnist
crime reporter
foreign correspondent
free lance journalist
journalism
media journalist
newspaper assistant
newspaper correspondent
parliamentary reporter
reporter
socialist journalist
staff writer
trade journalist
war correspondent
war reporter
women's columnist
clippings clerk
judge
court official
judge of probate
puisne judge
chief justice of the king's bench
county court judgeship
lord chief justice of ireland
labour union
general secretary of the empire press union
trade union delegate
trade union leader
trade union organizer
trade unionist
union member
union organizer
union representative
land agent
estate agent
estate management
estate manager
land steward
plantation manager
property agent
rent collector
managing the estates
laundry worker
laundress
laundry manager
washerwoman
law enforcement
chief constable
mounted police
police commissioner
police officer
sheriff
town constable
high sheriff
high sheriff of county cork
high sheriff of hertfordshire
high sheriff of kent
high sheriff of yorkshire
high sherriff of county
sherif of westmorland
sheriff depute
under sheriff of suffolk
legal work
clerk of the court
law clerk
lawyer's clerk
legal adviser
legal advisor
legal aid worker
legal assistant
legal clerk
legal expert
legal scholar
solicitor's clerk
liaison officer
liaison officer, correspondent to cairo
librarian
cataloguer
county librarian
director of the camps library
keeper of the bodleian library
royal academy's librarian
vice president of the london library
literary agent
amateur literary agent
literary advisor
literary assistant
writer's assistant
literary executor
literary executrix
literary group participant
chair of literary society
dramatic society president
running writers' group
literary scholar
folklorist
literary historian
literary research
literary researcher
literary theorist
philologist
litigant
logger
lord chancellor
machineWork
fitter
mechanician
maid of honour
manager
factory manager
factory supervisor
managed
office manager
supervisor
shipping company manager
supervising
vice president of beauty without cruelty
manual labourer
day labourer
field labourer
labourer
manual worker
manufacturer
co operative manufacturer
cutler
lime manufacturer
manufacturer of machinery
smallware manufacturing
tobacco manufacturer
jet ornament manufacturer
manufacturer of fancy goods
mapping
cartographer
topographer
martyr
mental health professional
asylum director
child psychologist
freudian
freudian psychoanalyst
mental health worker
psychiatist
psychiatrist
psychologist
psychotherapist
pyschoanalyst
therapist
mentor
mercer
merchant
arms dealer
art dealer
book dealer
cattle dealer
china merchant
cloth merchant
coal merchant
corn dealer
corn merchant
cosmetics merchant
cotton merchant
dealer
dealer in stamps
hardware merchant
importer
international exporter
leather merchant
linen merchant
merchant adventurer
merchant in furs
merchant's apprentice
potato merchant
shipping agent
silk merchant
sugar merchant
timber merchant
tradesman
wine merchant
exported textiles to the west indies
merchant in liverpool
metal work
brass worker
iron manufacturer
metal manufacturer
sheet metal worker
silver manufacturer
steel worker
metallurgy
assayer
metallurgist
meteorologist
military
artillery gunner
artillery officer
captain of militia
colonel
deputy lieutenant
lieutenant
lieutenant general
major general
military communications
military driver
military escort
military leadership
military officer
militia captain
para military officer
quartermaster
soldier
war hero
aide de camp
air raid defence provider
air raid shelter marshal
camouflage worker
captain (later admiral)
commander of a highland regiment
half pay officer
non commissioned officer
recruiting officer
second lieutenant
solider
territorial soldier
miller
milliner
milliner's apprentice
milliner's assistant
miner
coalminer
colliery manager
mining
mine agent
mine work
mining entrepreneur
miser
model
artist's model
artists' model
fashion model
musicologist
naturalist
naval rating
admiral
first lord of the admiralty
home guard officer
lieutenant royal marines
merchant navy captain
naval administrator
naval architect
naval captain
naval censor
naval chaplain
naval engineer
naval officer
naval official
naval surgeon
navy commissioner
navy officer
rear admiral
vice admiral
assistant naval surgeon
commander in chief of the portuguese navy
united states navy
us naval commander
us navy
numismatist
nun
prioress
occultism
astrologer
character reader
fortune teller
magician
medium
spiritualism
spiritualist
mediumship
member of the council of the society for psychical research
vice president of the college of psychic studies
optician
ophthalmic optician
orderly
hospital ward orderly
patriot
irish patriot, nationalist,
pawnbroker
performer
acted
acting
actor
actors
actress
cabaret star
comedienne
entertainer
impersonator
mime
perform
stage performer
understudy
pharmacist
apothecary
dispensary assistant
dispenser
druggist
pill dispenser
apothecary, druggist
philanthropic visitor
benevolent visitor
charitable visiting
charitable visitor
charity visitor
colonial health visitor
district visitor
domestic visitor
health visitor
hospital visitor
military visitor
parish visitor
poor visitor
prison visitor
school visitor
sick visitor
slum visitor
social visitor
visiting pensioners and war widows
visiting prisons and orphanages
visiting the poor
visitor of the poor
workhouse visitor
visited the prisoners
visiting imprisoned catholics
workhouse superintendent
philanthropist
active philanthropist
benefactor
benefactor of school
church donor
donor to university
educational philanthropist
patron of charities
philanthopic activity
philanthropic educationalist
philanthropy
private benefactor
patron, philanthropist
photography
photographer
photographer's assistant
physiognomist
phrenologist
physiognomy parlour
pilot
poet laureate
politicalHost
political host
political hostess
official hostess at the government house
politics
closet politician
election observer
left wing politics
parliamentary candidate
patriot politician
political advisor
political agent
political campaigner
political canvasser
political conspirator
political officer
political organizer
political organizing
political party delegate
political party worker
political secretary
politician
public health campaigner
republican
whig leader
whig party supporter
advocate of catholic emancipation in the irish parliament
american loyalist
chief adviser on arab affairs
conservative backer of empire
politicians
president of the british women's temperance league
president of the progressive league
supporter of the ministry
pollster
pornographer
postal worker
assistant postmistress
letter carrier
letter sorter
post office clerk
post office worker
postmaster
postmaster general
postmistress
junior assistant to the postmistress
prisoner
political prisoner
prisoner of war
was imprisoned
producer
produced
produced and appeared
producing
property owner
hereditary land owner
landlady
landlord
landowner
plantation owner
shipbuilding owner
shipyard owner
squire
emergency landlady
landlady/proprietor
owned land of his own
sugar estate owner
radio operator
reading
poetry lover
refugee
religious
anchoress
church elder
church worker
evangelical leader
garrison chaplain
lay sister
member of religious order
methodist convert
methodist lay preacher
monk
permanent curate
pilgrim
prayer
prayer leader
precentor
principal clerk of session
religious administrator
religious leader
religious manager
religious observance
religious organizer
religious revivalist
royal chaplain
spiritual counsellor
chancellor and prebendary of hereford cathedral
lay leader, or parnas
preaching and religious organising activities
religious studies
biblical scholar
hindu scholar
theologian
rescue work
life saving
mountain rescue
mountain rescue leader
retail
bookseller
bookshop assistant
bookshop manager
bookshop worker
bookstore clerk
cashier
department store clerk
greengrocer
market seller
newsagent
retail selling
retail worker
shop assistant
shop manager
shop work
shopkeeper
shopkeeper/entrepeneur
storekeeper
working in a bookshop
bookshop partner
manager of bookshop
print seller
tobacconist
worked with him at running a children's bookshop
sailor
competitive sailor
deckhand
ferryman
midshipman
purser
sailing
seaman
ship's carpenter
ship's officer
ship's purser
salesperson
costermonger
door to door salesperson
paper salesman
pedlar
piano salesman
real estate agent
real estate salesman
sales director
sales manager
sales staff
salesgirl
salesman
saleswoman
stationer
street seller
ticket seller
wine seller
door to door salesman
fairground salesman
newspaper dealer
sausage seller
salter
salt-worker
servant
server
food server
summer waitress
waiter
waitress
receptionist barmaid
settler
colonial settler
emigrant
immigrant
pioneer
huguenot immigrant
managing trading posts
sex worker
courtesan
prostitute
singer
amateur singer
concert singer
opera singer
skilled trade
moulder
slave
slave nurse
slave owner
slaver
slave trader
smuggler
arms runner
gun runner
social scientist
anthropologist
economist
egyptologist
sociologist
academic economist
social work
caseworker
child care officer
child welfare officer
child welfare worker
childcare officer
children's aid worker
community worker
emigrant aid
humanitarian
immigrant aid
organise soup kitchens
organiser for the poor
religious social worker
social caseworker
social investigation
social investigator
social work organizer
social worker
unemployment worker
welfare officer
welfare supervisor
welfare worker
worker with prostitutes
youth club worker
youth worker
almshouse manager
chief lady welfare officer
child's aid worker
organiser of women's community
poor districts
running a soup kitchen
socializer
bon viveur
debutante
socialite
became a debutante
bon viveur, drinker, and speculator
fashionable beauty
sports
athlete
boxer
curling
golf
oarsman
olympic athlete
physical training instructor
polo player
skier
sport
sportsman
yachtsman
yachtsperson
yachtswoman
championship skier
storyteller
raconteur
student
apprentice
architecture student
art student
engineering student
law student
medical student
study law
studying
theology student
university student
studied at oxford
surveyor
assistant road surveyor
assistant surveyor
building surveyor
land surveyor
quantity surveyor
railway surveyor
surveyor of highways
deputy surveyor of royal parks and palaces
technician
telephone operator
textiles
textile mill worker
textile worker
theatre work
assistant theatre manager
cabaret dresser
costume designer
play reader
prompter
property mistress
set designer
stage manager
theatre
theatre censor
theatre company director
theatre designer
theatre director
theatre dresser
theatre manager
theatre organiser
theatre president
theatre producer
theatrical agent
theatrical director
theatrical manager
usherette
wardrobe assistant
founded a small theatre group
men of the theatre
student production of one of her plays
theatre literary manager
theatre trust president
workshopping plays
timber trade
sawyer
timber manager
tinker
tour guide
mountain guide
youth hostel warden
trader
clothes trader
fur trader
wool trader
transportation work
bus conductor
bus driver
bus inspector
bus worker
cab driver
driver
transportation
van driver
travelling
sightseeing
travel agent
travel guide
traveller
treasurer
city treasurer
hospital department treasurer
society treasurer
treasurer to the royal society
under treasurer for the navy
trustee
tate gallery trustee
unskilled labourer
dishwasher
sweeping the floor
urban planning
veterinary work
veterinary doctor
veterinary worker
vintner
wine maker
walking
hiker
war work
war duties
war effort
war efforts
war worker
chief of war staff
warehouse work
warehousing
welder
whaler
wife
candidate's wife
colonial governor's wife
diplomat's wife
headmaster's wife
housemaster's wife
housewife
vicar's wife
writer In residence
poet in residence
resident dramatist
writer in residence
writing group participant
writing group member
writing group president
airForce
airforce officer
army
army colonel
army commander
army doctor
army officer
army paymaster
army surgeon
billetting officer
cavalry officer
cavalry soldier
inspector of army education
matron
house mother
housemother
school matron
workhouse matron
birth context
naissance en contexte
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as birth context provide information about and discussions of a person's birth. See About: Birth.
Classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées en tant que contexte de naissance fournissent des informations sur la naissance d'une personne. Voir About: Birth
birth event
An event related to an birth context.
birth relationship
relates by birth to
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to birth.
birth date
approximate birth date
birth place
birth position
has birth place
Indicates where a person was born.
birth place of
has birth date
Indicates the date on which a person was born.
birth date of
has approximate birth date
Provides an approximation of the date on which a person was born.
has birth position
Indicates a person's birth position relative to their siblings, with accompanying context provided by birth context annotations.
birth position of
ordre de naissance
Indicates the birth position of a foaf:person, that is, whether they are the eldest, youngest, or only child in their family. Birth position claims can be made in relation to biological, adopted, or step siblings, and there is not systematic handling of deceased siblings that might affect one's understanding of birth order.
Indique l'ordre de naissance d'une foaf:person, qu'elle soit aînée, cadette ou enfant unique de sa famille. Les déclarations sur l'odre de naissance peuvent être formulées en lien avec les frères et soeurs biologiques, adoptif·ve·s ou par alliance, sans traitement systématique des frères et soeurs décédé·e·s susceptibles de modifier l'ordre de naissance.
eldest
aîné·e
Indicates that the subject is the eldest child in the family.
Indique que la personne est l'enfant le plus âgé de la famille.
middle
cadet·te
Indicates that the subject is the middle child in the family.
Indique que la personne n'est ni l'enfant le plus jeune ni le plus âgé de la famille.
youngest
benjamin·e
Indicates that the subject is the youngest child in the family.
Indique que la personne est l'enfant le plus jeune de la famille.
only child
enfant unique
Indicates that the subject is the only child in the family.
Indique que la personne est l'unique enfant de la famille.
death context
décès en contexte
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as death context provide information about and discussions of a person's death. See About: Death.
Classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées comme contexte de décès fournissent des renseignements et des discussions sur le décès de la personne. Voir About: Death
death event
An event related to an death context.
death relationship
relates by death to
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to death.
cause of death
death date
approximate death date
death place
burial place
has cause of death
a une cause de décès
Describes a person's death.
Décrit le décès d'une personne.
has burial place
Indicates where a person was buried after death.
burial place of
has death place
Indicates where a person has died.
death place of
has death date
Indicates the date of which a person has died.
death date of
has approximate death date
Provides an approximation of the date on which a person died.
spatial context
contexte spatiale
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as spatial context provide information about and discussions of aspects of a person's connections to geospatial locations. Spatial information is also associated in a range of ways with other properties and events such as a person's geographic heritage, a place of publication, or the setting of literary texts.
Une sous-classe importante de contexte. Les annotations de contexte spatial fournissent des informations et des discussions sur certains aspects des relations d'une personne avec des positions géospatiales. L'information spatiale est aussi associée d'autres manières à d'autres propriétés ou évènements tels que l'héritage géographique d'une personne, un lieu de publication ou les cadres de textes littéraires.
spatial event
An event related to an spatial context.
spatial movement event
An event related to an spatial context. Particularly in relation to travelled to, moved to, emigrated from, immigrated to, visits
spatial relationship
has spatial relation to
Indicates an entity's connection to a geospatial location or to some other entity related to location.
habitation
travel
relocation
emigration
migration
visit
inhabited
Indicates that a person lived in this place.
has inhabitant
travelled to
Indicates that a person travelled to this place.
has traveller
moved to
Indicates that a person moved to this place.
has relocatee
emigrated from
Indicates that a person migrated from this place.
has emigrant
immigrated to
Indicates that a person immigrated to this place.
has immigrant
visits
Indicates that a person visited this place.
has vistor
has organization
Indicates that the organization in question belongs in some sense to the specified conceptual entity. For instance, a particular religion may have one or more organizational groups associated with it, a political campaign may have multiple political groups associated with it simultaneously or sequentially, or an artistic movement may have various contributing groups.
religious organization
organisation religieuse
An organization whose activities are primarily religious.
Une organisation dont les activités ont principalement un caractère religieux.
political organization
organisation politique
An organization whose activities are primarily political or with which a person is affiliated politically.
Un organisation dont les activités sont principalement politiques ou avec laquelle une personne est politiquement affiliée.
educational organization
établissement éducatif
An organization such as a school that provides education, usually although not always as its primary function. "A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Une école est un établissement où l'on accueille des individus appelés « écoliers » afin que des professeurs leur dispensent un enseignement de façon collective.» (DBpedia, 2018)
La description de ce terme est basée sur celle de DBPedia.
The description for this term is indebted to DBpedia.
credential
certificat
Academic or educational qualification, such as a certificate or degree, awarded by an educational institution.
Titre académique ou scolaire, tel qu'un certificat ou un diplôme, délivré par un établissement d'enseignement.
B.Sc.
Baccalauréat universitaire en sciences
B.Sc. (with honours)
BSc
BSc in Physics
"A Bachelor of Science (Latin Baccalaureus Scientiae, B.S., BS, B.Sc., or BSc; or, less commonly, S.B., SB, or Sc.B., from the equivalent Latin Scientiae Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a particular subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, an economics degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) by one university but as a B.Sc. by another, and some universities offer the choice of either. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, while some universities offer only the BS even in non-science fields. Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service awards Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degrees to all of its undergraduates, although many major in humanities-oriented fields such as international history and culture and politics. The London School of Economics offers B.Sc. degrees in practically all subject areas, even those normally associated with arts degrees, while the Oxbridge universities almost exclusively award arts qualifications. In both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern University's School of Communication grants B.Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, and radio/television/film. University of California, Berkeley grants B.S. degree in Environmental Economics and Policy in College of Natural Resources (CNR), and B.A. degree in Environmental Economics and Policy in College of Letters and Science (L&S). The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B.A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology and botany." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le baccalauréat universitaire en sciences (BSc) est un grade universitaire existant dans de nombreux pays, notamment dans les pays de tradition universitaire anglo-saxonne. Il existait en France au XIXe siècle.» (DBpedia, 2018)
B.A.
Baccalauréat universitaire ès lettres
BA in English
Bachelor of Arts
BA degree
BA in English Literature
BA in Arts
BA in cultural anthropology
BA in Drama and Theatre Arts
Cambridge BA
BA degee
BA in English and History
BA in English Language and Literature
BA in history
BA in modern history
BA in PPE
AB degree
first-class honours BA
Honours BA
first class honours
Honours BA in English
BA (Honours)
BA Honours in English
BA honours in History
BA Honours degree
BA (Hons) in English Language and Literature
Bachelor of Arts with honours in English
Honours BA degree
Honours BA in French
BA first-class Honours in English
BA in English with First Class Honours
first-class BA
first-class BA in English
Honours BA in Classics, First Class
Honours BA in Greats
BA (Second Class Honours)
BA Honours degree in English was a third class
BA honours, second class
BA honours, third class
BA in Classics, Class II
BA Pass Degree
BA, Second Class, in English Language and Literature
Bachelor of Arts degree (at pass level only)
Class Three BA
degree with first-class honours
double first Honours BA
first-class degree
Honours BA, Second Class,
Second Class degree
second-class honours
Second Class Honours BA
Second Class honours degree
third-class degree (in history)
third-class honours
2:2 BA
first in her BA
"A Bachelor of Arts (BA, B.A., AB or A.B. from the Latin artium baccalaureus or baccalaureus artium) is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs generally take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium (from the Latin bacca, a berry, and laureus, "of the bay laurel") should not be confused with baccalaureatus (translatable as "gold-plated scepter" by using the Latina bacum and aureatus), which refers to the one- to two-year postgraduate Bachelor of Arts with Honours degree (Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore) in some countries. Diplomas generally give the name of the institution, signatures of officials of the institution (generally the president or rector of the university as well as the secretary or dean of the component college), the type of degree conferred, the conferring authority and the location at which the degree is conferred. Degree diplomas generally are printed on high quality paper or parchment; individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. The Bachelor of Arts degree is usually attained in four years in Afghanistan, Lebanon, Armenia, Greece, Bangladesh, Azerbaijan, Egypt, Iran, Japan, Nigeria, Serbia, Spain, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, Russia, Ireland, South Korea, Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey, the United States of America and most of the Americas. They generally last three years in nearly all of the European Union, and in Albania, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada, India, Israel, New Zealand, Iceland, Norway, Singapore, the Caribbean, South Africa, and Switzerland." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le baccalauréat universitaire en lettres ou baccalauréat en arts est un grade universitaire délivré généralement après des études dans le domaine des lettres, des beaux-arts ou des sciences sociales ou humaines. Ce terme est parfois abrégé en BA (ou plus rarement AB de l'expression latine Artium Baccalaureus).» (DBpedia, 2018)
certificate
Postgraduate Certificate
Postgraduate Certificate in Education, English as a Second Language
Cambridge Certificate
Certificat d'Études Françaises, 1er Degré
certificate in social science
Higher National Certificate
University Certificate
Higher Cambridge Certificate
certificate in the exam for women
Educational certificate, including those awarded to women in lieu of degrees in the early years of their admission to universities.
diploma
Diploma
Diploma in Social Work
diploma in school counselling
diploma in Psychopathology
diploma in literature
diploma in journalism
diploma in agriculture
Diplome d'Etudes de Civilisation Française
Educational diploma.
honorary degree
Doctorat honoris causa
honorary Doctorate of Divinity
honorary MA
"An honorary degree or a degree honoris causa (Latin: "for the sake of the honor") is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived the usual requirements, such as matriculation, residence, a dissertation and the passing of comprehensive examinations. The degree is typically a doctorate or, less commonly, a master's degree, and may be awarded to someone who has no prior connection with the academic institution or no previous postsecondary education. An example of identifying a recipient of this award is as follows: Doctorate in Business Administration (Hon. Causa). The degree is often conferred as a way of honouring a distinguished visitor's contributions to a specific field or to society in general. It is often given to graduation speakers at a university or college, and the university may derive benefits by association with the person in question. The degree is not recognized by employers as having the same stature as a corresponding earned doctorate degree and should not be represented as such. Rev. Theodore Hesburgh held the record for most honorary degrees, having been awarded 150 during his lifetime." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Un doctorat honoris causa (du latin causa, qui exprime le but, précédé du génitif de honor, honoris, l'honneur : « pour l'honneur », honorifique) est un titre honorifique décerné par une université ou une faculté à une personnalité éminente. Un docteur honoris causa, parfois abrégé en Dr h. c., est le récipiendaire d'un doctorat honoris causa. Au Canada, on parle de doctorat honorifique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Lady Literate in the Arts
Lady Literate in Arts
L.L.A. (Lady Literate in the Arts)
"A Lady Literate in Arts (LLA) qualification was offered by the University of St Andrews in Scotland for more than a decade before women were allowed to graduate in the same way as men, and it became popular as a kind of external degree for women who had studied through correspondence, or by attendance at non-university classes. Until 1892 women were not admitted to Scottish universities and the LLA was the nearest qualification to a degree which was open to women in the country, although the University of Edinburgh offered certificates recognising achievement in classes organised by the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, and in Glasgow Queen Margaret College was offering a university-equivalent education and awards. To obtain an LLA candidates had to pass examinations at a university-approved centre, which might be in Scotland or outwith the country. Even after 1892, the LLA continued to be popular with women who wanted to study for an arts degree without needing to attend one particular institution for three or four years. Thousands of women received an LLA before it was discontinued in the 1930s. William Angus Knight (1836–1916), Professor of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews between 1876 and 1903, was a supporter of female education and the main force behind the university's introduction of the LLA degree. Helen Bannerman, the children's writer, and suffragette Margaret Nevinson both had LLAs, as did the wartime nursing "heroine", Violetta Thurstan." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La qualification de Lady Literate in Arts (« Dame Instruite ès Arts ») ou LLA était dispensé par l'Université de St Andrews, en Écosse, plus d'une dizaine d'années avant que les femmes soient acceptées dans les études supérieures de la même manière que les hommes. Il devint populaire comme une forme de diplôme à distance pour des femmes étudiant par correspondance ou suivant des cours non-universitaires. Jusqu'en 1892, les femmes n'étaient pas admises dans les universités écossaises et le LLA était la qualification la plus proche d'un diplôme qu'une femme pouvait obtenir dans le pays, bien que l'Université d'Edimbourg dispensait des certificats de réussite à des cours organisés par la Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women (en) et le Collège Queen Margaret de Glasgow offrait une éducation de niveau universitaire avec des distinctions. Pour obtenir un LLA, les candidates devaient passer des examens dans un centre approuvé par l'Université, qui puovait être en Écosse ou à l'extérieur du pays. Même après 1982, le LLA continuait d'être populaire auprès des femmes qui voulaient étudier pour un diplôme d'art sans avoir à suivre les cours d'une institution particulière pour trois ou quatre ans. Des milliers de femmes reçurent un LLA avant qu'il soit abandonné dans les années 30. William Angus Knight (en) (1836-1916), professeur de philosophie morale à St Andrews entre 1876 et 1903, était un défenseur de l'éducation des femmes et un des pionniers derrière la création du LLA. L'auteur de livre pour enfants Helen Bannerman (en) et la suffragette et écrivaine réaliste Margaret Nevinson ont toutes les deux reçu un LLA.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Ph.D.
Philosophiæ doctor
PhD
DPhil
PhD in Linguistics
PhD in Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
doctorate
"A Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or D.Phil.) is a type of doctorate degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph.D.s are awarded for a wide range of programs in the sciences (e.g., biology, physics, mathematics, etc.), engineering, and humanities (e.g., history, literature, musicology, etc.), among others. The Ph.D. is a terminal degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph.D. is a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in many fields. A clear distinction is made between an "earned doctorate", which is awarded for completion of a course of study and a thesis or dissertation, and an "honorary doctorate", a title granted by a university to a successful or notable person who has not completed doctoral academic work or completed a dissertation at the university. Individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of "Doctor" with their name and use the initials "Ph.D." (or "D.Phil.") after their name. The requirements to earn a Ph.D. degree varies considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. A person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called doctoral student or Ph.D. student, but also "doctoral candidate" or "Ph.D. candidate" once the student has completed all of the coursework and comprehensive examinations and is working on their thesis or dissertation. A Ph.D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph.D., such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.), a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), a degree for professional educators. In the context of academic degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) other than theology, law, and medicine (the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy"." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Philosophiæ doctor (ou doctor philosophiæ ; abrégé PhD ou Ph. D. ; littéralement « docteur en philosophie ») est, dans le système universitaire anglo-saxon ou franco-canadien, l'intitulé le plus courant d'un diplôme de doctorat. Le terme philosophie est utilisé dans son sens antérieur au XXe siècle, tel qu'il a été répandu par les universités allemandes, et désigne ici l'étude générale des connaissances.» (DBpedia, 2018)
professional degree
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Divinity degree
Master Mariner's Certificate
MB medical degree
MD degree
"A professional degree, sometimes known as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditation. Professional degrees may be either graduate or undergraduate entry, depending on the profession concerned and the country, and may be classified as bachelor's, master's or doctoral degrees. For a variety of reasons, professional degrees may bear the name of a different level of qualification from their classification on qualifications frameworks, e.g. some UK professional degrees are named bachelor's but are at master's level, while some Australian and Canadian professional degrees have the name "doctor" but are classified as master's or bachelor's degrees." (DBpedia, 2018)
law degree
degree in law
"A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in law. Such degrees are generally preparation for legal careers; but while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority, they do not themselves confer a license. A legal license is granted (typically by examination) and exercised locally; while the law degree can have local, international, and world-wide aspects- e.g., in Britain the Legal Practice Course is required to become a British solicitor or the Bar Professional Training Course (BPTC) to become a barrister." (DBpedia, 2018)
medical degree
"A medical degree is a vocational, or even technical, degree awarded for studies in fields associated with medicine and surgery. A study conducted in 2011 that involved more than 1000 medical schools throughout the world indicated on average, 64 university exams, 130 series exams, and 174 assignments are completed over the course of 5.5 years. Students need more than 85% marks in prerequisite courses in order to get enrolled for the aptitude test for these degree programs. They then have to pass the test with 85% to 90% marks, which is high compared with all the other bachelor's degree programs. The World Health Organization has granted international recognition to certain widely offered conventional medical degrees. Degrees recognized internationally by the AVICENNA Directory for medicine/International Medical Education Directory." (DBpedia, 2018)
master's degree
Master (diplôme ou grade universitaire)
MA degree
MA in Canadian Literature
MA in Classics
MA in English
MA in English literature
MA in English.
MA in philosophy and literature
MA in psychology
Master's degree
master's degree in Public Health
Masters Degree
MA (a first degree in Scotland)
MLitt
MPhil in Medieval Literature
MSc
"A master's degree (from Latin magister) is a second-cycle academic degree awarded by universities upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice. A master's degree normally requires previous study at the bachelor's level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. Within the area studied, master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of theoretical and applied topics; high order skills in analysis, critical evaluation, or professional application; and the ability to solve complex problems and think rigorously and independently." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le terme master signifie « maître » en anglais. À cause de l'influence de l'anglais dans l'enseignement supérieur, un certain nombre de pays non-anglophones ont introduit dans leur langue le mot master ou master's degree pour renommer des grades ou diplômes préexistant ou bien pour nommer de nouveaux diplômes. Ceci s'est fait parfois en conservant le terme « maîtrise » comme intitulé d'autres diplômes. Peuvent donc coexister, comme en France, un diplôme dénommé « master » et un diplôme dénommé « maîtrise ». Les grades ou diplômes dont le nom est une traduction de « maître » ou « maîtrise » sont traités dans l'article maîtrise.» (DBpedia, 2018)
postgraduate degree
DSc
post-graduate degree in theatre
postgraduate degree in teaching
Postgraduate Diploma in Writing for the Stage
Agrégation
Postgraduate degree.
secondary school diploma
Chancellor's Diploma
Higher School Certificate
Credential signifying completion of secondary schooling.
teaching qualification
Certificate in the Theory and Practice of Teaching
education diploma
Elementary School Teachers' Certificate
Elementary Teacher's Certificate
Diploma of Education
Post-Graduate Certificate of Education
teacher's certificate
Teacher's Diploma
teaching certificate
Teaching Certificate, First Class
Teaching Certificate,, First Class
Teaching Diploma
USA teaching certificate
second class teaching certificate
diploma in education
Credential signifying training in teaching, usually at the primary or secondary school level.
undergraduate degree
B. Litt.
BLitt
Bachelor
degree in advertising
degree
two-year degree
"An undergraduate degree (also called first degree, bachelor's degree or simply degree) is a colloquial term for an academic degree taken by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. It is usually offered at an institution of higher education, such as a university. The most common type of this degree is the bachelor's degree, which typically takes at least three or four years to complete." (DBpedia, 2018)
boarding school
internat
"A boarding school provides education for pupils who live on the premises, as opposed to a day school. The word "boarding” is used in the sense of "room and board" i.e., lodging and meals. As they have existed for many centuries, and now extend across many countries, their function and ethos varies greatly." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Un internat est une branche d'un établissement scolaire (école, collège, lycée, école d'enseignement supérieur...) qui offre la possibilité de loger et nourrir les élèves et les étudiants. À cette fin, un internat comprend généralement un dortoir ou des chambres, un réfectoire et des salles d'études, douche ou de divertissement.» (DBpedia, 2018)
grammar school
"A grammar school is one of several different types of school in the history of education in the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries, originally a school teaching Latin, but more recently an academically-oriented secondary school, differentiated in recent years from less academic Secondary Modern Schools." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Une grammar school est, dans les pays anglophones, un établissement d'enseignement secondaire ou, plus rarement, d'enseignement primaire. Les origines des grammar schools remontent à l'Europe médiévale.» (DBpedia, 2018)
private school
école privée
"Private schools, also known as independent schools, non-governmental, or nonstate schools, are not administered by local, state or national governments; thus, they retain the right to select their students and are funded in whole or in part by charging their students tuition, rather than relying on mandatory taxation through public (government) funding; at some private schools students may be able to get a scholarship, which makes the cost cheaper, depending on a talent the student may have (e.g. sport scholarship, art scholarship, academic scholarship), financial need, or tax credit scholarships that might be available." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les écoles privées sont des écoles qui ne sont pas administrées par leur gouvernement local, étatique ou national et qui conservent donc le droit de sélectionner leurs élèves et sont financées, en tout ou en partie grâce aux frais de scolarité qu'elle demande à ses élèves, plutôt qu'entièrement par des fonds gouvernementaux. La plupart des écoles privées offrent des bourses d'étude qui permettent de rendre la fréquentation plus abordable pour des étudiants possédant un talent quelconque, généralement au niveau académique ou sportif. Le terme école privée désigne habituellement une école primaire ou secondaire et n'est que très rarement utilisé pour désigner une université.» (DBpedia, 2018)
state school
"State schools (also known as public schools outside of England and Wales) generally refer to primary or secondary schools mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded in whole or in part by taxation. The term may also refer to public institutions of post-secondary education." (DBpedia, 2018)
State school est un terme utilisé en Australie, en Nouvelle-Zélande et au Royaume-Uni pour distinguer les écoles gérées par le gouvernement des écoles privées.
dame school
"A dame school was an early form of a private elementary school in English-speaking countries. They were usually taught by women and were often located in the home of the teacher." (DBpedia, 2018)
«On désigne sous le nom de Dame schools les premières écoles primaires privées dans les pays de langue anglaise. C'étaient d'ordinaire des femmes qui enseignaient à leur propre domicile. Il y en avait de toutes sortes : certaines étaient de simples garderies tenues par des femmes analphabètes, alors que d'autres donnaient aux élèves des bases solides. Les lacunes de ce système furent mises en évidence en 1838 par une étude de la Statistical Society of London1. Cette étude affirmait que la moitié des élèves des Dame school n'apprenaient que l'alphabet, une proportion négligeable pratiquant les mathématiques et la grammaire. Les Dame schools se firent plus rares en Grande-Bretagne après que l'enseignement eut été rendu obligatoire en 1880 : les écoles où les cours ne couvraient pas le programme fixé par le gouvernement pouvaient être fermées. Dans la première école d'Australie, qui était une Dame school créée en 1789, c'est une détenue, Isabella Rossen, qui enseignait les bases aux enfants.» (DBpedia, 2018)
day school
école externe
"A day school—as opposed to a boarding school—is an institution where children (or high-school age adolescents) are given educational instruction during the day, after which the students return to their homes. The term can also be used to emphasize the length of full-day programs as opposed to after-school programs, as in Jewish day school." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Une école est un établissement où l'on accueille des individus appelés « écoliers » ou élèves afin que des professeurs leur dispensent un enseignement de façon collective. Le mot école vient du latin schola, signifiant « loisir consacré à l'étude », lui-même provenant du grec schole (« le loisir »note 1), lequel constituait un idéal souvent exprimé par les philosophes et une catégorie socialement valorisée opposée à la sphère des tâches productives.» (DBpedia, 2018)
comprehensive school
école
"A comprehensive school is a secondary school or middle school that is a state school and does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the selective school system, where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria. The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965. About 90% of British secondary school pupils now attend comprehensive schools. They correspond broadly to the public high school in the United States and Canada and to the German Gesamtschule." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Après l'école primaire, on a le choix entre deux types d'établissement : grammar school (lycée) et comprehensive state (lycée général). Pour entrer dans une grammar school, il faut passer un examen nommé "11+". Les Grammar schools étant pour les étudiants les plus doués, et les places étant limitées, la grande majorité des enfants fréquentent les state comprehensive.» (DBpedia, 2018)
secondary modern school
école secondaire moderne
"A secondary modern school is a type of secondary school that once existed throughout England, Wales and Northern Ireland, from 1944 until the 1970s under the Tripartite System and still persist in Northern Ireland, where they are usually referred to simply as Secondary schools, and in areas of England, such as Buckinghamshire (where they are referred to as community schools), Lincolnshire, Wirral Medway and Kent where they are called high schools. " (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les écoles secondaires modernes, ou Secondary Technical Schools (en), avaient pour objectif une professionnalisation rapide de leur élèves.» (DBpedia, 2018)
trade school
lycée professionnel
"A vocational school, sometimes called a trade school or vocational college, is a post-secondary educational institution designed to provide vocational education, or technical skills required to perform the tasks of a particular and specific job. Vocational schools are traditionally distinguished from four-year colleges by their focus on job-specific training to students who are typically bound for one of the skilled trades, rather than providing academic training for students pursuing careers in a professional discipline. While many schools have largely adhered to this convention, the purely vocational focus of other trade schools began to shift in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic" as well as technical skills of their students." (DBpedia, 2018)
«En France, le lycée professionnel (LP) est un établissement d'enseignement professionnel qui offre un enseignement professionnel en relation avec les métiers des entreprises, afin d'acquérir des compétences, des connaissances et des savoir-faire dans un domaine professionnel. Son but est l'insertion socioprofessionnelle.» (DBpedia, 2018)
primary school
école primaire
"A primary school (or elementary school in American English and often in Canadian English) is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. (In some countries there is an intermediate stage of middle school between primary and secondary education.)" (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'enseignement primaire, ou l'école primaire, est, dans plusieurs pays, le premier degré de l'enseignement. Il permet notamment l'apprentissage de la lecture, de l'écriture et des bases des mathématiques. Les enfants débutent leurs études primaires vers l'âge de 6 ans et les achèvent vers l'âge de 11 ans.» (DBpedia, 2018)
secondary school
collège
"A secondary school is both an organization that provides secondary education and the building where this takes place. Some secondary schools can provide both lower secondary education and upper secondary education (levels 2 and 3 of the ISCED scale), but these can also be provided in separate schools, as in the American middle school- high school system. Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages of 11 and 16. The organisations, buildings, and terminology are more or less unique in each country." (DBpedia, 2018)
«En France, le collège est un établissement d'enseignement — public ou privé — qui se situe entre l'école primaire et le lycée et assure le premier niveau de l'enseignement secondaire (de la 6e à la 3e) en principe de 11 à 14 / 15 ans environ (l'âge obligatoire minimum de sortie scolaire est de 16 ans en France).» (DBpedia, 2018)
post-secondary school
"Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after secondary education. Often delivered at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology, higher education is also available through certain college-level institutions, including vocational schools, trade schools, and other career colleges that award academic degrees or professional certifications. Tertiary education at non-degree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares, in Article 13, that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education". In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le terme d'études supérieures désigne généralement l'éducation dispensée par les universités, les collèges anglo-saxons, avec en France un système plus dual de grandes écoles et d'autres institutions comme les grands établissements décernant des grades universitaires ou autres diplômes de l'enseignement supérieur. Ces études visent à acquérir un niveau "supérieur" de compétences, généralement via une inscription ou concours d'entrée, un cursus ponctués par des examens. Historiquement, il s'agissait autrefois d'abord de former les élites recrutées par les États, les armées et les religions, puis (à partir de la révolution industrielle) par les monde économique et industriel et de la culture ou de l'enseignement. Mais d'autres dimensions, socioculturelles et éthiques ou de développement durable sont apparues à la fin du XXe siècle, ajoutant une dimension de service public visant à permettre aux étudiants, de trouver leur voie ou domaine d'excellence, de se préparer aux métiers futurs tout en faisant progresser le savoir. Ces études se déroulent souvent autour de campus, dans un système public ou privé selon les cas, et souvent catégorisés en « Sciences dures », « sciences de l'ingénieur » et « sciences humaines et sociales ». Les types de diplômes évoluent avec le temps, mais tendent à s'homogénéiser aux niveaux européens et internationaux avec les licences, des masters, et des doctorats pour faciliter les systèmes d'équivalence ou de reconnaissance mutuelle de diplômes. Cette formation inclut des cours et des stages, et peut également comporter des participations à la recherche scientifique (notamment au niveau du doctorat) et intégrer de la formation continue, mais accepte souvent aussi des « auditeurs libres » qui viennent simplement accroître leur culture générale ou spécialisée.» (DBpedia, 2018)
prep school
école préparatoire
Within a North American context, prep schools are private educational institutions that prepare students for college. Within a British context, they are private schools for students -- the age range of the students can vary significantly depending on when they went to school, though typically ranging from ages seven (though sometimes three) to thirteen.
Dans le contexte nord-américain, les écoles préparatoires sont des établissements d'enseignement privés qui préparent les étudiant·e·s à l'université. Dans le contexte britannique, ce sont des écoles privées pour les étudiants; la tranche d'âge des élèves peut varier considérablement en fonction du début de leur scolarisation, mais elle va généralement de sept (parfois trois) à treize ans.
religious school
école non laïque
A school associated formally in some way with a religion, ranging from parochial schools to faith-based schools.
Établissement éducatif officiellement associé de quelque façon avec une religion, allant des écoles paroissiales aux écoles confessionnelles.
secular school
école laïque
A school that is not formally associated with a religious organization and/or one that is avowedly secular in its educational principles, often but not always publicly-funded institutions that are funded by countries with a separation between religion and the state.
École qui n'est pas formellement associée à quelque organisation religieuse et/ou officiellement laïque dans ses principes éducatifs, souvent (mais pas toujours) financée publiquement dans les pays où la religion est séparée de l'État.
single-sex school
éducation non mixte
"Single-sex education, also known as single-gender education, is the practice of conducting education where male and female students attend separate classes or in separate buildings or schools. The practice was common before the twentieth century, particularly in secondary education and higher education. Single-sex education in many cultures is advocated on the basis of tradition as well as religion, and is practiced in many parts of the world. Recently, there has been a surge of interest and establishment of single-sex schools due to educational research. Single sex education is practiced in many Muslim majority countries; while in the West it is most popular in Belgium, Chile, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Israel, New Zealand, Australia, South Korea. Motivations for such education range from religious ideas of sex segregation to beliefs that the sexes learn and behave differently, and, as such, they thrive in a single sex environment. In the 19th century, in Western countries, single sex girls' finishing schools, and women's colleges offered women a chance to education at a time when they were denied access to mainstream educational institutions. The former were especially common in Switzerland, the latter in the US and the UK, which were pioneers in women's education." (DBpedia, 2018)
L'éducation non mixte, également connue sous le nom d'éducation unisexe, désigne un type d'éducation qui implique la séparation des élèves en fonction de leur sexe de naissance, qui sont réparti·e·s dans des classes, des bâtiments ou des écoles séparés.
co-ed school
éducation mixte
"Mixed-sex education, also known as mixed-gender education, co-education or coeducation (abbreviated to co-ed or coed), is a system of education where males and females are educated together. Whereas single-sex education was more common up to the 19th century, mixed-sex education has since become standard in many cultures, particularly in Western countries. Single-sex education, however, remains prevalent in many Muslim countries. The relative merits of both systems have been the subject of debate." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La mixité ou, dans son sens ancien, la coéducation1 est l'instruction et l'éducation en commun des garçons et des filles, dans des groupes mixtes.» (DBpedia, 2018)
has student
a un·e étudiant·e
Indicates that the student was educated by the entity in question,—an instructor, an educational institution, or a particular type of schooling.
Indique que l'étudiant·e a été éduqué·e par l'entité en question (instructeur·rice, établissement éducatif,ou type d'éducation particulière).
un·e camarade
has companion
a un·e camarade
Describes a relationship with a person, usually a peer, in the context of the subject's education.
Décrit la relation du sujet avec une personne, habituellement un·e camarade, dans le contexte de son éducation.
nonconformant behaviour
comportement contesté
has nonconformant behaviour
Describes behaviour, which is perceived as negative, in the context of the subject's education. Often indicative of struggle against systemic discrimination, including within the structures of educational institutions.
Décrit le comportement, perçu comme négatif, dans le contexte de l'éducation du sujet. Souvent indicateur d'une lutte contre la discrimination systémique, y compris au sein des structures de l'éducation insitutionnelle.
un instructeur·ice
has instructor
a un instructeur·ice
Describes the subject's relationship with an educational instructor or mentor, formal or informal.
Décrit la relation du sujet avec un instructeur pédagogique ou un·e mentor·e, formel·le ou informel·le.
attends
scolarisation
Indicates attending or having attended for education either a particular school or a particular type of schooling.
Indique que le sujet fréquente ou a fréquenté un établissement éducatif en particulier ou a reçu une forme d'enseignement spécifique
school attended
education context
contexte éducatif
Education Context is a significant subclass of context. It has subclasses for domestic education context, institutional education context, and self taught education context. Annotations typed as Education Context or a subclass provide information about and discussions of a person's education, whether formal or informal.
Contexte Éducatif est une sous-classe de contexte important. Elle contient les sous-classes de contexte contexte éducatif domestique, contexte éducatif institutionnel et contexte éducatif autodidacte. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte Éducatif ou en tant que sous-classe fournissent des informations et des discussions sur l'éducation d'une personne, qu'elle soit formelle ou informelle.
self taught education context
contexte éducatif autodidacte
Education context related to learning conducted independently.
Contexte éducatif lié à l'apprentissage mené de façon autonome.
domestic education context
contexte éducatif domestique
Context for education that takes place at home. For example, of a woman writer in the Victorian period taught by her brother or a governess.
L'éducation a lieu à domicile. Par exemple, une auteure de la période victorienne qui a reçu son instruction d'un frère ou d'une gouvernante.
institutional education context
contexte éducatif institutionnel
Context for education or learning within an institutional setting.
L'instruction ou l'apprentissage a lieu dans un cadre institutionnel.
education event
An event related to an education context.
domestic education event
An event related to an domestic education context.
institutional education event
An event related to an institutional education context.
self taught education event
An event related to an self taught education context.
education relationship
relates by education to
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to education.
award
"An award is something given to a person, a group of people, like a sports team, or an organization in recognition of their excellence in a certain field. An award may be accompanied by a trophy, title, certificate, commemorative plaque, medal, badge, pin, or ribbon. The accompanying item may vary according to purpose." (DBpedia, 2019)
educational award
récompense scolaire
An award, financial, material, or immaterial, associated with a person's education at any level.
literary award
A literary award is an award presented in recognition of a particularly lauded literary piece or body of work. It is normally presented to an author.
une récompense
has award
a une récompense
Indicates an award, prize, or recognition that a person has won, such as a literary award or an educational award prize.
Indique une récompense, un prix ou une distinction qu'une personne a gagné, tel qu'un prix littéraire ou un prix d'éducation.
awarded to
educational award prize
prix éducatif
An educational prize is a medal or award, monetary or otherwise, presented by either an institution or person of authority to an individual who has excelled beyond their peers, reached a great achievement, and/or produced a very high standard of work.
Un prix éducatif est une médaille ou une récompense, financière ou autre, attribuée par une institution ou une personne d'autorité à un individu ayant excellé par rapport à ses camarades, a concrétisé un projet d'envergure et/ou a fourni un travail de grande qualité.
educational award scholarship
bourse d'études
A scholarship is an award of financial aid for a student to further their education. Scholarships are awarded based upon various criteria, which usually reflect the values and purposes of the donor or founder of the award. Scholarship money is not required to be repaid.
Une bourse d'études est une bourse d'aide financière qui permet à un·e étudiant·e de poursuivre ses études. Les bourses sont accordées en fonction de critères variés, qui reflètent généralement les valeurs et les objectifs du/de la donateur·ice ou fondateur·ice de la bourse. Les bourses d'études ne sont pas destinées à être remboursées.
has credential
Indicates an educational credential awarded to a person.
credential of
credential subject
has credential subject
Indicates a subject in which a person has pursued or received a degree.
credential subject of
subject of study
studies
Indicates a subject, field, art, or skill studied in the course of their education, whether formal or informal, institutional or domestic.
Using this predicate with an author's oeuvre usually indicates the study of a portion, rather than the entirety, of that author's works.
studied by
teaching educational subject
teaches educational subject
Indicates a subject, field, art, or skill taught by an instructor or educational organization.
attends primary school
Indicates attending or having attended for education a primary school.
attends secondary school
Indicates attending or having attended for education a secondary school.
attends post-secondary school
Indicates attending or having attended for education a post-secondary school.
educational subject
sujet d'étude
A subject or field of study or practice. Educational subjects are typically designated by Library of Congress Subject Headings (http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects.html). However, given the omissions, biases, and US-centricity of this vocabulary, other terms or strings may be used.
Une matière, un domaine d'étude ou de compétence. Les sujets d'étude sont généralement désignés par les en-têtes de sujet de la Bibliothèque du Congrès (http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects.html). Cependant, étant donné les omissions, les partis pris et la perspective majoritairement nord-américaine de ce vocabulaire, d'autres termes ou d'autres chaînes peuvent être utilisés.
oeuvre
œuvre
Indicates the works of an author or other creative practioner regarded collectively. Publications of a particular writer's works are a repesentation of that writer's oeuvre but not synonymous with it.
Indique l'ensemble des travaux d'un·e auteur·e ou d'un·e artiste.
educational text
A text, cultural work, or an author or artist's general oeuvre, that is significant to a person's informal or formal education.
educational prize
récompense éducative
A medal or award, monetary or otherwise, presented by either an institution or person of authority to an individual who has excelled in some aspect of their education.
Une médaille ou un prix, monétaire ou autre, remis par une institution ou une personne d'autorité à un individu ayant excellé lors de son parcours scolaire.
fellowship
programme de bourse
An award or position usually associated with research or advanced standing in a field, and often associated with a particular group, body, or organization connected to creative, scholarly, or professional practice, sometimes involving a stipend and sometimes labour such as teaching.
Récompense ou position académique généralement reliée à la recherche ou à un parcours avancé dans un champ disciplinaire, impliquant parfois un emploi d'enseignant·e.
essay award
prix (travaux académiques)
An award given in an educational context on the strength of the recipient's essay.
Prix attribué en contexte académique pour récompenser une production académique de qualité.
bursary
bourse
A bursary is a monetary award made by an institution to individuals or groups of people who cannot afford to pay full fees. In return for the bursary the individual is usually obligated to be employed at the institution for the duration as the bursary.
Une bourse est une compensation monétaire octroyée par une institution à des individus ou à des groupes de personnes qui ne peuvent pas se permettre de payer l'intégralité des frais d'inscription. En contrepartie de la bourse, le/la boursier·ère doit généralement être employé·e par l'établissement pour toute la durée de la bourse.
exhibition (scholarship)
exposition (bourse)
An exhibition is a type of scholarship award or bursary.
Une exposition est un type de bourse ou de récompense académique.
distinction
mention
An educational award indicating that a person has achieved honours or distinction in their studies.
Un prix éducatif indiquant qu'une personne a obtenu des honneurs ou une mention au cours de ses études.
studentship
bourse estudiantine
A Studentship is a type of academic scholarship.
Une bourse estudiantine est un type de bourse académique.
address
adresse
A mailing or street address.
Une adresse postale ou de rue.
CWRC address is the equivalent of a schema.org Postal Address and uses the predicates from schema Postal Address.
fictional place
A place that features in an imaginative work such as a literary work. Such places typically do not not have geospatial coordinates, although they may have a relationship to a mapped place.
mapped place
A place that can be mapped according to some accepted system of graphically representing space.
place
endroit
A named entity associated with a location in geographical space. It may be real or fictive, populated or unpopulated.
Il peut concerner un endroit peuplé, mais pas nécessairemment. Certains endroits, comme les intersections, n'ont pas de de populations ou d'habitants en soi. Les Geonames classifieront parfois les endroits désormais abandonnés comme «lieux habités».
cultural form
forme culturelle
The Cultural Form class of properties associates specific concepts and categories with the process of identity formation through cultural processes. Such associations may be or have been embraced by the subject herself or himself or attributed by others. Although cultural forms or social identities circulate around the notion of characteristics, traditions, beliefs, or origins that are shared with others, recent work has stressed the contingency, provisionality, and constructedness of such categories through both complex discourses and social practices. As argued by Stuart Hall, "It seems to be in the attempt to rearticulate the relationship between subjects and discursive practices that the question of identity recurs" ("Introduction"). See Stuart Hall and Paul du Goy's edited collection Questions of Cultural Identity (Paul du Goy and Stuart Hall, 1996). Given their highly discursive nature, the concepts and categories classed as cultural forms are understood to overlap with each other conceptually. The same word or label can therefore occur as multiple cultural forms, reflecting the shifting discursive contexts in which it has been used and the diverse situations from which it has emerged. Each specific Cultural Form is understood to interact not only with other cultural forms or identity categories applied to a person, and other instances of the form applied to other people, but also always with Cultural Formation Context annotations, which support the understanding that social identities are always constructions in progress.
La classe de propriétés Forme Culturelle associe des concepts et des catégories spécifiques à la formation identitaire réalisée au travers de processus culturels. De telles associations ont été adoptées par le sujet elle/lui-même ou attribuées par d'autres. Même si les formes culturelles ou les identités sociales s'articulent autour de notions communément partagées comme la caractérisation, les traditions, les croyances ou les origines, certains travaux récents ont ont montré que de telles catégories sont contingentes, provisoire et construites par des discours et des pratiques sociales complexes. Tel que Stuart Hall l'affirme, "Il semble que la question de l'identité réapparaît dans une tentative de remanier la relation entre sujets et pratiques discursives" ("Introduction"). Voir la collection éditée par Stuart Hall et Paul du Goy, Questions of Cultural Identity ((Paul du Goy and Stuart Hall, 1996). Comme ils sont de nature discursive, les concepts et les catégories de Formes Culturelles se recoupent. Un même terme peut donc apparaître sous diverses formes culturelles, reflétant le changement de contextes discursifs dans lesquels il est employé et les diverses situations d'où il provient. Chaque Forme Culturelle est d'une part liée aux autres formes culturelles ou catégories identitaires qui sont appliquées à une personne ou à d'autres individus, et est d'autre part toujours reliée aux annotations de Formation Culturelle En Contexte, soutenant que les identités sociales sont toujours considérées comme des constructions en progrès.
cultural form event
An event related to an cultural form context.
gender event
An event related to an gender context.
nationality event
An event related to an nationality context.
race ethnicity event
An event related to an race or ethnicity context.
religion event
An event related to an religious context.
sexuality event
An event related to an sexuality context.
social class event
An event related to an social class context.
cultural form relationship
relates by cultural form to
has a cultural form
a une forme culturelle
This associates specific concepts and categories with the process of identity formation through cultural processes. Such associations may be or have been embraced by the subject her/himself or attributed by others. The concepts and categories classed as a cultural form are understood to overlap with each other conceptually and in terms of the labels used.
Associe des concepts et des catégories spécifiques au processus de formation identitaire par des processus culturels. Les sujets eux-mêmes peuvent ou ont pu s'approprier de telles associations, ou d'autres personnes les leur ont attribuées. Les concepts et les catégories classés dans forme culturelle se chevauchent pour les concepts et les étiquettes utilisés.
cultural form of
This is the inverse of has a cultural form.
context
contexte
The Context class provides the discursive context for assertions in the ontology. Where the assertions have been generated from a source text, Context provides the text, or the relevant snippet of a longer text, from which they have been extracted.
La classe Contexte fournit le contexte discursif des assertions de l'ontologie. Lorsque les assertions sont générées à partir d'un texte source, le contexte fournit le texte ou un extrait de code provenant d'un texte plus long d'où ces assertations ont été extraites.
biography context
Biography Context is a major subclass of context. Annotations typed as Biography Context provide information about and discussions of a person's biography or personal history, through the use of biographical properties and relationships and through subclasses of Biographical Context such as birth context, cultural form context, or occupation context.
biographical event
An event related to an biography context.
biographical relationship
has biographical relation to
Indicates a relationship or assertion based on an account of the life of a person or persons.
writing context
Writing Context is a major subclass of context. Annotations typed as Writing Context provide information about and discussions of a person's writing and writing career through the use of literary properties and relationships and through subclasses of Writing Context such as production context, reception context, and textual features context.
writing event
An event related to an writing context.
extent
has extent
The size or duration of a thing.
extent of
profile
has profile
A description of something or someone.
profile of
generic range includes
has generic range
Indicates that a person wrote in this genre or form.
in generic range of
intertextuality context
Intertextuality Context is a significant subclass of Context. Annotations typed as Intertextuality Context provide information on the relationships between authors and texts.
intertextuality event
An event related to an intertextuality context.
intertextual relationship
has intertextual relation to
Indicates the relationships amongst authors and texts, reflecting the extent to which language of an author or a specific text is in dialogic relation to other texts, as first articulated by Julia Kristeva. A creative Work or an author more generally relates intertextually to a textual object, either to a specific Work or to the general style or oeuvre of another author. Usually refers to how the meaning of a later text is informed by an earlier one, but, as articulated by theorists including Mikhail Bakhtin and Kristeva, it can also be invoked to refer to the shaping impact of language more generally on subsequent linguistic productions. The specific subpredicates provided here are not exhaustive. 1996.
explicit allusion
alludes explicitly to
Indicates direct acknowledgement of either a specific creative Work or the style or general oeuvre of another author, often through mention of the title or the author's name.
has explicit allusion by
allusion
alludes to
Indicates an apparent but indirect reference to either a specific creative work or the style or general oeuvre of another author, without explicitly identifying it.
alluded to by
adaptation
adapts
Indicates a reworking of a creative Work, including updates. Adaptation can be construed broadly: to quote Linda Hutcheon, "adaptation is not only a formal entity . . . but a process" xvii.
adapted by
quotation
quotes
Indicates when an author or a text lifts words or phrases directly from another's writing.
quoted by
misquotation
misquotes
Indicates when an author or a text lifts words or phrases incorrectly from another's writing.
misquoted by
parody
parodies
Indicates a parodic mode of intertextuality. See genre:parody
parodied by
satire
satirizes
Indicates a satiric mode of intertextuality. See genre:satire
satirized by
imitation
imitates
Indicates a generally favourable intertextual engagement by way of imitation. See genre:imitation
imitated by
continuation
is continuation of
Indicates an imaginative textual response to a previous text that further develops the characters, plot, or setting, but differs from imitations, adaptations, or updates in that it does not directly rely on the previous text, nor act as a sequel.
has continuation
prequel
is prequel of
Indicates an intertextual engagement that involves creative speculation about events what came before the temporal setting or events of an existing text.
has prequel
answer
answers
Indicates an intertexual engagement that forms a reply to a previous text, sometimes but not necessarily a rebuttal.
answered by
response context
Response Context is a significant subclass of both Reception Context and Intertextuality Context. annotations typed as Response Context address reactions to a writer's literary work, whether their oeuvre in general or specific works, or to their role as an author.
response event
An event related to an response context.
response relationship
has response relationship to
The subject, whether a Person or a Creative Work, responds to a textual object, which can take the form of a creative work, a writer's oeuvre in general, or, when the object is a Person, a writer's role as an author/artist. Reactions can take the form of texts, such as reviews or diary entries, or events such as conversations.
response
has response
Indicates a response to a subject, whether a particular work, a writer's oeuvre in general, or, when the object is a Person, a writer's role as an author/artist. Responses may manifest as texts, such as reviews or diary entries, or fugitive forms reported later, such as conversations.
responds to
Response
A reaction to a creative work or its creator which may take a wide range of forms both material and immaterial.
recent response
Indicates that a response to an author or one or more of their work occurred at some point after the initial response period.
re-evaluation response
Indicates a significant re-consideration of an author or one or more of their works.
initial response
Indicates that a response to an author, or more usually one of their works, occurred soon after the time of production or publication.
formal response
Indicates that a response to an author or their work was formally delivered, that is, written or otherwise made public.
informal response
Indicates that a response to a work was informally delivered rather than published, which can include a hearty slap on the back, rude looks from strangers on buses, a snubbing by someone's social set, or comments in conversations, letters, or diaries.
adfeminam response
Indicates that a response to the author's work was predicated on their identification as a woman, and that it was driven by a pre-existing opinion of the author as distinct from the work, and of her as a woman rather than a writer, for example, if the circulation of a malign stereotype of a particular author is reflected in a critical response.
gendered response
Describes a response to the author or their work as influenced by their gender.
non-gendered response
Describes a response to an author or their work as not influenced by their gender.
influence
influences
Describes an authors' influence on other writers, the literary tradition, and/or society as a whole.
is influenced by
This element from the Production component names the specific people, texts, events or places that formed (developed) the writer's thinking as an artist. Influences can pertain to individual texts or her work as a whole.
literary influence
has as literary influence
Indicates an author's own work having been influenced by another's literature.
has literary influence on
intellectual influence
has as intellectual influence
Indicates an author's own work having been intellectually influenced by another.
has intellectual influence on
familial influence
has as familial influence
Indicates an author's own work having been influenced by her family history.
has familial influence on
reception context
Reception Context is a significant subclass of Writing Context. Annotations typed as Reception Context chart the effects and results of an individual's writing, and the responses of self and others to an individual's writing.
reception event
An event related to an reception context.
reception relationship
has reception relation to
textual features context
Textual Features Context is a significant subclass of Writing Context. Annotations typed as Textual Features Context chart critical interest in texts in addition to textual analysis, which occassionally draws on the tradition of close reading.
production context
Production Context is a significant subclass of Writing Context.
textual survival context
Textual Survival Context is a significant subclass of Writing Context. Annotations typed as Textual Survival Context chart the survival or lack of survival, whether accidental or deliberate, of a text or texts.
textual features event
An event related to an textual features context.
production event
An event related to an production context.
textual survival event
An event related to an textual survival context.
writing relationship
has writing relation to
Indicates a relationship or assertion based on a writer’s literary works or an account of their literary career.
health context
contexte de santé
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as health provide information about and discussions of a person's health, both mental and physical, and associated social, political and historical factors.
Sous-classe importante de contexte. Les annotations entrées comme contexte de santé fournissent des informations sur la santé physique et mentale d'une personne ainsi que sur des facteurs sociaux, politiques et historiques associés.
health event
An event related to an health context.
health association
associated via health with
physical health context
contexte de santé physique
A subclass of health context. Annotations typed as physical health context describe aspects of a person’s bodily or physical well-being or illness.
Sous-classe de contexte de santé. Les annotations de contexte de santé physique décrivent des aspects de la condition physique d'une personne, qu'elle soit en bonne ou en mauvaise santé.
mental health context
contexte de santé mentale
A subclass of health context. Annotations typed as mental health context describe an aspect of a person’s mental or psychological well-being or illness.
Sous-classe de Contexte de santé. Les annotations entrées en tant que contexte de snaté mentale décrivent un aspect de du bien-être mental d'une personne ou au contraire de ses troubles psychologiques ou mentaux.
women's health context
contexte de santé des femmes
A subclass of health context. Annotations typed as women's health context describe an aspect of a person's health related to being a woman. Often closely connected to or overlapping with reproductive history. See Women's health - Wikipedia.
Une sous-classe importante de contexte de santé. Les annotations de contexte de santé féminine fournissent des informations et des discussions sur un aspect de la santé d'une personne en relation à son statut de femme. Souvent étroitement lié ou en croisement avec l'histoire reproductive. Voir Santé de la femme — Wikipédia.
cultural form context
forme culturelle en contexte
Cultural Form Context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Cultural Form Context provide information about and discussions of a person's social identity or subjectivity through the use of cultural form properties, which when multiple often indicate intersectional identities.
Formation Culturelle En Contexte est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées en tant Formation Culturelle En Contexte fournissent des renseignements et des discussions sur l'identité sociales ou la subjectivité d'une personne à travers l'utilisation des propriétés Formes Culturelles, qui lorsqu'elles sont multiples indiquent souvent des identités intersectionnelles.
race or ethnicity context
contexte ethnique ou racial
Race or Ethnicity Context is a subclass of cultural form context, and is associated with the cultural form subclasses race or colour and ethnicity, and sometimes other cultural forms. Annotations typed as Race or Ethnicity Context provide contextualizing information about and discussions related to a person's perceived or self-reported identity with regards to race and/or ethnicity (Race or Colour or ethnicity). Despite the ways in which categories of Race or Colour and ethnicity frequently serve heinous interests, their ideological and material impacts in the formation of identities requires recognition. These are shifting, historically constituted, and interestedly deployed categories whose use must be situated contextually and are understood here finally as discursive or representational although they have real material impacts. They are thus social constructs: "There is nothing more to being, or not being, a given race than the social acceptance and societal ascription of a race to a person" (Damon Sajnani, 2015).
Contexte Ethnique ou Racial est une sous-classe importante de Contexte, et est associée aux sous-classes race ou couleur et ethnicité et parfois à d'autres formes culturelles. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte Ethnique ou Racial fournissent des renseignements de contextualisation et des discussions sur l'identité d'un sujet concernant son appartenance raciale et/ou son ethnicité. Même si les catégories de race et d'ethnicité sont fréquemment manipulées au service d'intérêts déplorables, leurs répercussions idéologiques et matérielles sur la formation identitaire requièrent qu'on les prenne en compte. Ces catégories sont changeantes, historiquement constituées, développées de façon intéressée, et leur usage doit être resitué dans leur contexte; elles sont finalement comprises ici comme discursives et représentationnelles, même si elles ont de réelles répercussions matérielles. Elles sont entendues comme des constructions sociales: «Le fait d'être ou de ne pas être d'une certaine race n'est rien de plus que l'acceptation sociale et l'attribution sociétale d'une race à une personne» (Damon Sajnani, 2015)
race or colour identity
est de race our couleur
race or colour identity (self-reported)
race ou couleur (autodéclarée)
race or colour identity (reported)
race ou couleur (déclarée)
ethnic identity
ethnicité
ethnic identity (self-reported)
ethnicité (autodéclarée)
ethnic identity (reported)
ethnicité (déclarée)
sexuality context
sexualité en contexte
Sexuality Context is a significant subclass of cultural form context. Annotations typed as Sexuality Context provide information about and discussions of a person's subjectivity or experience with regards to their sexuality and sexual identity. Sexuality Context provides depth to more granular categorizations of a person through the sexuality or sexuality self-reported properties. It does not provide context for individual sexual experiences and relationships (for which see intimate relationship context), although specific relationships may be invoked to indicate the impact on a subject's life and understanding of their own sexuality. Contextualizations allow recognition of the complicated politics of sexuality, for example, considerations regarding outing, the historical specificity of some categories such as "congenital invert," the appropriation of derogatory terms, and the multiplicity of constructions. There are important politics of privacy with respect to the disclosure of a subject's sexuality, sexual orientation, and sexual identity. As far as living persons are concerned, recommended practice is to draw only on widely circulated public sources or disclosures from the subject her/himself in order to avoid inadvertently outing someone. See Campbell and Cowan, 2016
Sexualité En Contexte est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations de Sexualité En Contexte fournissent des renseignements et des discussions sur la sexualité et l'identité sexuelle d'une personne grâce à Sexualité ou Sexualité Autodéclarée. Elle n'est pas vouée à répertorier les expériences sexuelles et les relations intimes, même si certaines d'entre elles peuvent être évoquées pour indiquer leurs conséquences sur la vie du sujet ou la connaissance qu'elle a de sa propre sexualité. Ces efforts de contextualisation permettent de reconnaître l'existence de questions complexes qui entourent la sexualité, comme par exemple les politiques de délation, la spécificité historique de certaines catégories comme "inversion sexuelle", la réappropriation de termes dénigrants ou les mutliples constructions discursives. Il existe d'importantes politiques de confidentialité qui protègent les personnes contre la divulgation d'informations privées sur leur sexualité, leur orientation sexuelle et leur identité sexuelle. Pour les personnes toujours en vie, notre pratique est donc de ne nous appuyer que sur des sources ou des déclarations publiques venant des sujets eux-mêmes, afin de ne pas dévoiler par inadvertance des informations privées sur leur sexualité. Voir (Campbell and Cowan, 2016)
sexual identity
une orientation sexuelle
sexual identity (self-reported)
une orientation sexuelle (autodéclarée)
sexual identity (reported)
une orientation sexuelle (déclarée)
social class context
contexte social
Social Class Context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Social Class Context provide information about and discussions of a person's cultural formation in relation to social class identities and sometimes other intersecting Cultural Forms. Social Class Context provides depth to more granular indications of social class through the Social Class property(Orlando, 2006).
Contexte Social est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations de Contexte Social fournissent des informations et des discussions relatives à la classe sociale et parfois à d'autres Formes Culturelles d'une personne. Contexte Social explore plus en détails les indications granulaires sur la classe sociale à travers les propriétés de Classe Sociale.(Orlando, 2006)
class identity
une classe sociale
class identity (self-reported)
classe sociale autodéclarée
class identity (reported)
classe sociale déclarée
religious context
contexte religieux
Religion Context is a significant subclass of context. It is associated with the cultural form subclass religion, and sometimes other intersecting Cultural Forms. Annotations typed as Religion Context provide information about and discussions of a person's subjectivity or experience with regards to their religion. Religion Context provides depth to more granular categorizations of a person indicated by the properties has religious affiliation or has religious affiliation (self-reported).
Contexte Religieux est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Elle est associée à religion, sous-classe de Forme Culturelle, et recoupe parfois avec d'autres Formes Culturelles. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte Religieux fournissent des informations et des discussions sur la subjectivité d'une personne en lien avec sa religion. Contexte Religieux explore plus en détails les catégories granulaires d'une personne grâce aux propriétés est de confession Ou religion (autodéclarée).
religious affiliation
religious affiliation (self-reported)
religion (autodéclarée)
religious affiliation (reported)
religion (déclarée)
nationality context
contexte national
Nationality Context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Nationality Context provide information about and discussions of a person's cultural formation in relation to their national identity, national heritage, and geographic heritage -- which are not always aligned. Nationality Context provides depth to more granular indications of national identity through the national heritage, national identity, and geographic heritage properties.
Contexte National est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte National fournissent des informations et des discussions sur la formation culturelle d'une personne, en lien avec son identité nationale, son héritage national et son héritage géographique qui ne sont pas toujours équivalents. Contexte National explore plus en détails les indications granulaires sur l'identité nationale à travers les propriétés héritage national, identité nationale et héritage géographique.
national identity
nationalité
national identity (self-reported)
nationalité (autodéclarée)
national identity (reported)
nationalité (déclarée)
politics context
contexte politique
Politics Context is a significant subclass of context. It is associated with the cultural form subclass political affiliation, and sometimes other intersecting Cultural Forms. Annotations typed as Politics Context provide information about and discussions of a person's subjectivity or experience with regards to their political identity. Politics Context provides depth to more granular categorizations of a person indicated by the properties has political affiliation and its subproperties.
Contexte Politique est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Elle est associée à appartenance politique, sous-classe de forme culturelle, et recoupe parfois avec d'autres Formes Culturelles. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte Politique fournissent des informations et des discussions sur la subjectivité d'une personne en lien avec son activité politique. Contexte Politique explore plus en détails les catégories granulaires d'une personne grâce aux propriétés a une appartenance politique ou a une appartenance politique (autodéclarée)).
politics event
An event related to an politics context.
political relationship
relates by politics to
A connection between persons and other persons or entities related to politics.
gender context
genre en contexte
Gender Context is a significant subclass of context. It is associated with the cultural form subclass gender, and sometimes other intersecting Cultural Forms. Annotations typed as Gender Context provide information about and discussions of a person's subjectivity or experience with regards to their gender and gender identity. Gender Context provides depth to more granular categorizations of a person indicated through the properties has gender identity or has gender identity (self-reported).
Genre En Contexte est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Elle est associée à la sous-classe de Forme Culturelle genre, et se recoupe parfois avec d'autres Formes Culturelles. Les annotations entrées en tant que Genre En Contexte fournissent des renseignements et des discussions sur la subjectivité d'une personne en ce qui concerne son genre et son identité genrée. Genre Contexte explore plus en détails les indications granulaires des propriétés est de genre ou est de genre (autodéclaré).
gender identity
genre
gender identity (self-reported)
genre (autodéclaré)
gender identity (reported)
genre (déclaré)
national heritage
héritage national
A subclass of cultural form, this property indicates a person's national heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. National Heritage is composed of various elements related to national identity, often transmitted from previous generations and influenced by a subject's national historical background or geographic heritage. It can be multiple and can be different from a person's national identity, current or official citizenship, or the geographical region or territory in which a person resides. Those using this class and its instances are encouraged to consult associated nationality context excerpts or annotations, if available.
Une sous-catégorie de forme culturelle, cette propriété indique l'héritage national d'une personne, accompagné du contexte national lorsqu'il est disponible. Héritage National est composé de divers éléments relatifs à l'identité nationale, et est souvent transmis par des générations antérieures, influencé par le milieu historique et l'héritage géographique. Il peut être puluriel et peut se distinguer de l'identité nationale, de la citoyenneté actuelle ou officielle, de la région géographique ou du territoire de résidence. Les personnes qui utilisent cette classe et ses instances sont encouragées à consulter les extraits ou les annotations de contexte national lorsque ceux-ci sont disponibles.
national heritage (self-reported)
héritage national (autodéclarée)
national heritage (reported)
héritage national (déclarée)
Anglo-Irish
Anglo-irlandais
"Anglo-Irish (Irish: Angla-Éireannach) was a term used primarily in the 19th and early 20th centuries to identify a privileged social class in Ireland, whose members were mostly the descendants and successors of the Protestant Ascendancy. They mostly belonged to the Anglican Church of Ireland, which was the established church of Ireland until 1871, or to a lesser extent one of the English dissenting churches, such as the Methodist church. Its members tended to follow English practices in matters of culture, science, law, agriculture and politics. Many became eminent as administrators in the British Empire and as senior army and naval officers." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Anglo-irlandais sont une population relativement privilégiée d'Irlande, du XIXe siècle et du début du XXe, descendant de colons protestants. Le terme s'applique également pour décrire les relations bilatérales entre la République d'Irlande et le Royaume-Uni comme pour le traité anglo-irlandais ou le Anglo-Irish Agreement. * Portail de l’Irlande Portail de l’Irlande * Portail du Royaume-Uni Portail du Royaume-Uni» (DBpedia, 2018)
bengali
Bengale
"Bengal (bɛŋgəl; Bengali: বাংলা and বঙ্গ) is a region in Asia which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, the largest such formation in the world; along with mountains in its north (bordering the Himalayan states) and east (bordering Northeast India and Burma). Politically, Bengal is divided between the sovereign republic of Bangladesh, which covers two-thirds of the region, and West Bengal, which is a part of the Republic of India, in the western part of the region. In 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal. The predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh. Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Outside Bengal proper, the Indian territories of Tripura, the Barak Valley of Assam and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as Myanmar's Rakhine State; are also home to significant communities with Bengali heritage. Dense woodlands, including hilly rainforests, cover Bengal's northern and eastern areas; while an elevated forested plateau covers its central area. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. In the coastal southeast lies Cox's Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km (78 mi). The Bengali calendar divides the region's climate into six seasons. Bengal has played a major role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations. At times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. It had extensive trade networks. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, commerce, politics and cuisine." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le Bengale désigne aujourd'hui une zone géographique de l'est du sous-continent indien aujourd'hui partagée entre l'Inde et le Bangladesh. Le nom de Bengale n'a pas recouvert exactement la même zone au fil des siècles. Cette zone recoupe également plus ou moins l'aire de distribution de la langue bengali.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Cornish
Corniques
"Cornish people or Cornish (Cornish: Kernowyon) are an ethnic group associated with Cornwall, in the south west of Great Britain, administered as part of England, and a recognised national minority in the United Kingdom. The Cornish thus represent a distinct ethnic group within the UK, which can trace its roots to the ancient Britons who inhabited southern and central Great Britain before the Roman conquest, and some in the county today continue to assert a distinct identity, separately or in addition to English or British identities. Cornish identity has been adopted by migrants into Cornwall, as well as by emigrant and descendant communities from Cornwall, the latter sometimes referred to as the Cornish diaspora. Although not included as an explicit option in the UK census, the numbers of" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Corniques sont un groupe ethnique originaire des Cornouailles, en Angleterre (à ne pas confondre avec les Cornouaillais qui sont les habitants de la Cornouaille — sans « s » —, région de Bretagne). C'est un peuple celtique qui parlait la langue cornique jusqu'au XVIIIe siècle et qui s'est mis à la cultiver de nouveau depuis le XXe siècle, bien que de manière minoritaire. Selon une enquête de 2004, 35 % des habitants des Cornouailles se considèrent corniques (environ 181 000 personnes).» (DBpedia, 2018)
African
Africain
"The African diaspora refers to the communities throughout the world that have resulted by descent from the movement in historic times of peoples from Africa, predominantly to the Americas, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and among other areas around the globe. The term has been historically applied in particular to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas in the Atlantic slave trade between the 16th and 19th centuries, with their largest populations in Brazil (see Afro-Brazilian), the United States, and others. Some scholars identify "four circulatory phases" of migration out of Africa." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La diaspora africaine est une population qui résulte de la déportation d'Africains à l'époque de la traite esclavagiste du XVIe au XIXe siècle et de leurs descendants à travers le monde d'une part, et du phénomène d'émigration d'autre part. Ils habitent plus particulièrement sur le continent américain dans les Caraïbes, aux Guyanes (Guyane, Guyana et Suriname), aux États-Unis, au Canada, en Amérique centrale et en Amérique du Sud (dans tous les pays sauf au Chili et Argentine). Ils sont minoritaires partout sauf aux Antilles, où la population résulte du métissage entre Européens et Africains.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Dutch
Néerlandais
"The Dutch (Dutch: ), occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, "Nederlanders"—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Aruba, Suriname, Guyana, Curaçao, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and the United States." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le peuple néerlandais est un groupe ethnique originaire des Pays-Bas. Les Néerlandais partagent une culture commune et parlent le néerlandais. Le peuple néerlandais et ses descendants sont présents sur tous les continents des suites de la colonisation européenne, et particulièrement au Suriname, au Chili, au Brésil, au Canada, en Australie, en Afrique du Sud, en Nouvelle-Zélande et aux États-Unis.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Flemish
Flandre
"The Flemish or Flemings (Dutch: Vlamingen) are a Germanic ethnic group, who speak Flemish Dutch. They are mostly found in the contemporary region of Flanders. They are one of two principal ethnic groups in Belgium, the other being the French-speaking Walloons. The Flemings make up the majority of the Belgian population (about 60%). Historically, all inhabitants of the medieval County of Flanders were called Flemings, irrespective of the language spoken. The contemporary region of Flanders comprises a part of this historical county, as well as parts of the medieval duchy of Brabant and the medieval county of Loon." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La « Flandre » ou les « Flandres » est un toponyme à la source de confusions et de débats dû à ses multiples usages pour définir au fil du temps des zones géographiquement, politiquement, historiquement, linguistiquement et ethniquement différentes. Les occupants successifs de ce territoire ont nommé de la même manière des entités diverses et des formes différentes d'une unique entité, ce qui entraîne des divergences de perception aussi bien pour ses habitants que pour les étrangers. Ces derniers ont préféré occulter leurs origines flamandes et se définir comme :» (DBpedia, 2018)
Iroquois
"The Iroquois (/ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/) or Haudenosaunee (/ˈhoʊdənoʊˈʃoʊni/) are a historically powerful and important northeast Native American confederacy. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the "Iroquois League," and later as the "Iroquois Confederacy," and to the English as the "Five Nations" (before 1722), and later as the "Six Nations," comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora peoples." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Iroquois (ou Haudenosaunee) connus aussi par l'expression Cinq-Nations comprennent effectivement cinq et puis plus tard six nations amérindiennes de langues iroquoises vivant historiquement dans le nord de l'État de New York aux États-Unis, au sud du lac Ontario et du fleuve Saint-Laurent. La plupart des quelque 125 000 Iroquois vivent aujourd'hui en Ontario au Canada et dans l'État de New York. D'autres vivent au Wisconsin, au Québec et en Oklahoma. Seule une petite minorité des Iroquois parle aujourd'hui une des langues iroquoises dont notamment près de 1 500 locuteurs du mohawk dans le village Kahnawake, au sud de Montréal.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Jewish
Juif
"The Jews (/dʒuːz/; Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation, while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Juifs (en hébreu : יְהוּדִים / yehoudim, en grec ancien : Ἰουδαῖοι / Ioudaĩoi, en latin : Iudaei, etc.) sont les membres d’un peuple lié à sa propre religion, le judaïsme, et au sens large du terme à une appartenance ethnique et religieuse.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Mohawk
Mohawks
"The Mohawk people (who identify as Kanien'kehá:ka) are the most easterly tribe of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. The name means "People of the Flint Place." They are an Iroquoian-speaking indigenous people of North America. The Mohawk were historically based in the Mohawk Valley in present-day upstate New York west of the Hudson River; their territory ranged north to the St. Lawrence River, southern Quebec and eastern Ontario; south to greater New Jersey and into Pennsylvania; eastward to the Green Mountains of Vermont; and westward to the border with the Iroquoian Oneida Nation's traditional homeland territory. As one of the five original members of the Iroquois League, the Mohawk were known as the Keepers of the Eastern Door. For hundreds of years, they guarded the Iroquois" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Kanien'kehá:ka, autrefois dénommés Agniers en français mais aujourd'hui plus connus sous le nom anglais de Mohawks, sont l'une des Six-Nations iroquoises, lesquelles sont, d’ouest en est : les Tuscaroras, les Sénécas (Tsonnontouans), les Cayugas (Goyogoins), les Onondagas (Onontagués), les Oneidas (Onnéiouts) et les Mohawks (Agniers).»
Tatar
Tatars
"The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations (khanlig) in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name "Tatar" first appears in written form on the Kul Tigin monument as 𐱃𐱃𐰺 (TaTaR). Today the term Tatars refers to people who speak one of the Turkic languages. The Mongol Empire, established under Genghis Khan in 1206, subjugated the Tatars. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu Khan (c. 1207–1255), the Mongols moved westwards, driving with them many of the Mongol tribes toward the plains of Russia. The "Tatar" clan still exists among the Mongols and Hazaras. Russians and Europeans used the name Tatar to denote Mongols as well as Turkic peoples under Mongol rule (especially in the Golden Horde). Later, it applied to any Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking people encountered by Russians. Eventually, however, the name became associated with the Turkic Muslims of Ukraine and Russia, namely the descendants of Muslim Volga Bulgars, Kipchaks, Cumans, and Turkicized Mongols or Turko-Mongols (Nogais), as well as other Turkic-speaking peoples (Siberian Tatars, Qasim Tatars, and Mishar Tatars) in the territory of the former Russian Empire (and as such generally includes all Northwestern Turkic-speaking peoples). The Tatars formed the Turkic-speaking population of Tartary—the lands ruled by Mongol élites from the 14th century until their conquest by the Russian Empire in the 18th to 19th centuries. The largest group by far that the Russians have called "Tatars" are the Volga Tatars, native to the Volga region (Tatarstan and Bashkortostan), who for this reason are often also simply known as "Tatars", with their language known as the Tatar language. As of 2002 they had an estimated population close to 6 million." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Tatars (ou Tartares) est un nom collectif donné à des peuples turcs d'Europe orientale et d'Asie du Nord. La plupart des Tatars vivent au centre et au sud de la Russie, en Ukraine, en Bulgarie, en Chine, au Kazakhstan, en Roumanie, en Turquie, et en Ouzbékistan. On en dénombrait plus de huit millions à la fin du XXe siècle. Ils forment par ailleurs l'un des cinquante-six groupes ethniques recensés par la République populaire de Chine. Il existe des distinctions entre les Tatars eux-mêmes, parmi lesquels les Nogaïs. Aujourd'hui, parmi les Tatars, on trouve des musulmans et des chrétiens orthodoxes (notamment en Russie). Le terme tartare était également désigné par confusion chez les occidentaux pour désigner les peuples mongols et donna lieu à l’appellation de Tartarie pour les régions habitées par les peuples turco-mongols» (DBpedia, 2018)
European
Européen
Indicates a subject's identity or labelling as of European national heritage.
indique l'identité ou l'étiquetage d'un sujet à l'héritage national européen.
Huguenot
"A Huguenot (/ˈhjuːɡənɒt/, /ˈhjuːɡənoʊ/ or /ˌhjuːɡəˈnoʊ/; French: [yɡ(ə)nõ]) is a designation for a French Protestant who follows the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to describe members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term traces back its origin to 16th century France. Historically, Huguenots were French Protestants inspired by the writings of John Calvin. Huguenots endorsed the Reformed tradition of Protestantism, as opposed to largely German Lutheran population in Alsace, Moselle, and around Montbéliard. Hans J. Hillerbrand in his Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set claims the Huguenot community reached as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7-8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV of France. Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions and edicts of toleration from the French crown. A series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The wars finally ended with the granting of the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and military privileges; they retained the religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Louis XIV gradually increased persecution of them until he issued the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), ending any legal recognition of Protestantism in France, and forcing the Huguenots to convert or flee in a wave of violent dragonnades. Louis XIV claimed the French Huguenot population of 800,000 to 900,000 individuals was reduced to 1,000 or 1,500 individuals; a huge overestimate, although dragonnades were indeed the most devastating event for the minority. Nevertheless, now tiny minority of Huguenots remained, and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. Persecution of Protestants diminished significantly in France after the death of Louis XIV in 1715, and then after the death of Louis XV in 1774. It officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, commonly called the Edict of Tolerance, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, Protestants gained equal rights as citizens. The bulk of Huguenot émigrés relocated to Protestant nations such as England, Wales, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, the Dutch Republic, the Electorate of Brandenburg and Electorate of the Palatinate in the Holy Roman Empire, the Duchy of Prussia, the Channel Islands, and Ireland. They also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, several of the English colonies in North America, and Quebec, where they were generally accepted and allowed to worship freely. In the 21st century, most Huguenots have been assimilated into various societies and cultures, but remnant communities of Camisards in the Cévennes and French members of the largely German Protestant Reformed Church of Alsace and Lorraine, as well as Huguenot diaspora in England and Australia still retain their beliefs, and Huguenot designation." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les huguenots sont les Français protestants pendant les guerres de Religion (seconde moitié du XVIe siècle), au cours desquelles ils ont été – sous ce nom – en conflit avec les catholiques. Environ 300 000 d’entre eux ont quitté la France à la suite des dragonnades et de la révocation de l’édit de Nantes le 18 octobre 1685. À partir du XVIIe siècle, les huguenots sont appelés religionnaires, car les actes royaux ne parlaient pas de protestantisme mais de « religion prétendue réformée ».» (DBpedia, 2018)
Norman
Normand
"The Normans (Norman: Nourmands; French: Normands; Latin: Normanni) were the people who in the 10th and 11th centuries gave their name to Normandy, a region in France. They were descended from Norse ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") raiders and pirates from Denmark, Iceland and Norway who, under their leader Rollo, agreed to swear fealty to King Charles III of West Francia. Through generations of assimilation and mixing with the native Frankish and Gallo-Roman populations, their descendants would gradually adopt the Carolingian-based cultures of West Francia, ultimately resulting in their own assimilation into the Romance society. The distinct cultural and ethnic identity of the Normans emerged initially in the first half of the 10th century, and it continued to evolve over the succeeding centuries. The Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural and military impact on medieval Europe and even the Near East. The Normans were famed for their martial spirit and eventually for their Christian piety, becoming exponents of the Catholic orthodoxy into which they assimilated. They adopted the Gallo-Romance language of the Frankish land they settled, their dialect becoming known as Norman, Normaund or Norman French, an important literary language. The Duchy of Normandy, which they formed by treaty with the French crown, was a great fief of medieval France, and under Richard I of Normandy was forged into a cohesive and formidable principality in feudal tenure. The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture and musical traditions, and for their significant military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers founded the Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II after conquering southern Italy from the Saracens and Byzantines, and an expedition on behalf of their duke, William the Conqueror, led to the Norman conquest of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Norman cultural and military influence spread from these new European centres to the Crusader states of the Near East, where their prince Bohemond I founded the Principality of Antioch in the Levant, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, to Ireland, and to the coasts of north Africa and the Canary Islands. The legacy of the Normans persists today through the regional languages and dialects of France, England, and Sicily, as well as the various cultural, judicial and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Normands sont actuellement les habitants de la Normandie, mais le terme désigne aussi historiquement les habitants du duché de Normandie. Autrefois, le mot de Normands était employé pour qualifier les Vikings. C'est pourquoi son étymologie s'explique par le francique ou le scandinave et signifie littéralement « Hommes du nord »» (DBpedia, 2018)
West Indian
"A West Indian is a native or inhabitant of the West Indies (the Antilles and the Lucayan Archipelago). For more than 100 years the words West Indian specifically described natives of the West Indies, but by 1661 Europeans had begun to use it also to describe the descendants of European colonists who stayed in the West Indies. Some West Indian people reserve this term for citizens or natives of the British West Indies." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La population [antillaise] est mixte et donc de provenance diverse. Composée majoritairement de noirs d'origines africaines et de métis comme à la Jamaïque ou en Haïti, elle comprend aussi des individus d'origine européenne, hindoue, arabe, juive. À noter un très faible pourcentage d'Asiatiques. Quelques rares survivants des premiers occupants de ces régions, les Amérindiens, y sont encore présents, comme les Caraïbes à l’île de la Dominique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
identité nationale
A subclass of cultural form, this property indicates a person's national identity, either as self-reported or as assigned by others, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. It is neither the same as citizenship nor commensurate with the geographical region or territory in which a person resides, although it is usually associated with a current or former country or geographic region. For this reason, the (see ISO 2-digit Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 2: Country subdivision codes are used where possible to represent instances of national identities, and only terms for which country codes do not exist appear in this ontology. Like other identity categories, nationality may be plural, fluid, or contingent, and terms used for national identities can intersect with national heritage, geographic heritage, and ethnicity as well as other identity categories. Those using this class and its instances are encouraged to consult associated nationality context annotations, if available.
Une sous-catégorie de forme culturelle, cette propriété indique la nationalité d'une personne, qu'elle soit autodéclarée ou attribuée par d'autres, accompagnée du contexte fourni par les annotations de contexte national lorsqu'il est disponible. Elle diffère de la citoyenneté et n'est pas proportionnelle à la zone géographique ou au territoire de la personne, même si elle est généralement liée au pays ou à la zone géographique actuelle ou passée. Pour cette raison, (vois les codes de la norme ISO 2 pour la représentation des pays et de leurs subdivisions-Partie 2 : Codes des subdivisions des pays sont utilisés dans la mesure du possible pour représenter les instances de nationalités, et seuls les termes pour lesquels aucun code pays n'existe apparaissent dans l'ontologie. Comme d'autres catégories identitaires, la nationalité peut être plurielle, fluide ou contingente, et recoupe avec héritage national ainsi qu'avec d'autres catégories identitaires. Les personnes qui utilisent cette classe et ses instances sont encouragées à consulter les annotations de contexte national lorsqu'elles sont disponibles.
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as African as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale africaine.
Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indienne
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Anglo-Indian as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale anglo-indienne.
Anglo-Irlandaise
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Anglo-Irish as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale anglo-irlandaise.
British
Brittaniques
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as British as a national identity. See British people - Wikipedia.
«Les Britanniques, également appelés en anglais les Britons (en français, les Bretons insulaires), familièrement les Brits, et de manière archaïque les Britishers, se définissent comme les citoyens ou les natifs du Royaume-Uni, des dépendances de la Couronne et des territoires britanniques d’Outre-mer, ainsi que leurs descendants». Britanniques — Wikipédia(DBpedia, 2018)
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as European as a national identity.
Florentine
Florentin
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Florentine as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale florentine.
Sephardic Jewish
Séfarade
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Sephardic Jewish as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale sérafade.
Hanoverian
Hanovrien
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Hanoverian as a national identity. See Hanover - Wikipedia.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale hanovrienne. Voir Hanovre — Wikipédia.
Saxon
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Saxon as a national identity. See Saxons - Wikipedia.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale saxonne. Voir Saxons — Wikipédia.
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Jewish or Israeli as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale juive ou israélienne.
mohawk
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Mohawk as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale mohawk.
stateless
apatride
"In international law, statelessness is the lack of citizenship. A stateless person is someone who is "not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law". Some stateless persons are also refugees. However, not all refugees are stateless, and many persons who are stateless have never crossed an international border. Most people belonging to a stateless nation, despite lacking their own nation state, nonetheless hold citizenship in one or more countries, in some cases effectively as second-class citizens." (DBpedia, 2018)
Un apatride est, selon la convention de New York du 28 septembre 1954, « toute personne qu'aucun État ne considère comme son ressortissant par application de sa législation ». Plus simplement, un apatride est une personne dépourvue de nationalité, qui ne bénéficie de la protection d'aucun État. Il y aurait plus de 12 millions d'apatrides, selon le Haut Commissariat des Nations unies pour les réfugiés (HCR). Le mot « apatride » est composé du préfixe privatif a- et du grec patris, (« terre des ancêtres »).Le terme allemand heimatlos, dont il est le synonyme, s'utilise, en français, pour désigner les allemands ayant fui l'Allemagne nazie durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.[réf. nécessaire] (DBpedia, 2018)
language
langue
A human language or dialect, whether spoken and/or written.
Une langue ou un dialecte humain, à l'oral et/ou à l'écrit.
Library of Congress Languages codes are typically used for instances of language .
Les codes de la Bibliothèque du congrès sont normalement utilisés pour les instances de language.
geographic heritage
héritage géographique
A subclass of cultural form, this property indicates a person's geographic heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. Geographic heritage involves the geographical origins of a person's family, which often contributes to an understanding of their racial and ethnic background. It offers a way to capture individuals identified as "South-Asian," for example, when no more precise national heritage is indicated. See race or ethnicity context for a detailed description of the complexities of this class. It can be multiple and it can be different from a person's national identity or national heritage, current or official citizenship, or the geographical region or territory in which a person resides. Those using this class and its instances are encouraged to consult associated nationality context excerpts or annotations, if available.
Une sous-classe de forme culturelle, Héritage Géographique indique l'héritage géographique d'une personne, accompagné du contexte fourni par contexte national lorsqu'il est disponible. L'héritage géographique inclut les origines géographiques de la famille du sujet, souvent utiles à la compréhension de son milieu ethnique et raciale. Cela permet par exemple de saisir l'identité des femmes qui se déclarent «sud-asiatiques», alors que nous n'en savons pas plus sur leur héritage national. Voir contexte ethnique ou racial pour un compte-rendu détaillé de la complexité de cette classe. L'héritage géographique peut être pluriel et peut différer de l'identité ou de l'héritage national, de la citoyenneté actuelle ou officielle, et de la région géographique ou du lieu de résidence. Les personnes qui utilisent cette classe et ses instances sont encouragées à consulter les extraits ou les annotations de contexte national lorsqu'ils sont disponibles.
Geonames terms are often used for locations and for many instances of geographic heritage.
Les termes Geonames sont souvent utilisés pour les lieux et de nombreuses instances héritage géographique.
un héritage géographique
geographic heritage (self-reported)
un héritage géographique (autodéclaré)
geographic heritage (reported)
un héritage géographique (déclaré)
England
Angleterre
Indicates a subject's identification with or labeling as of English heritage in relation to a place, often England.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie ou s'est vu assigner une identité anglaise par rapport à un endroit, généralement l'Angleterre.
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as of Jewish heritage in relation to a place, which may or may not be Israel.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie ou s'est vu assigner une identité juive par rapport à un endroit, qui peut ou non être Israël.
gender
A subclass of cultural form for indicating a person's gender, whether attributed or self-reported, with accompanying context, where present, provided by gender context annotations. Although in popular culture gender and biological sex are conflated and understood to be binary, the concept of gender stresses the relationality, constructedness, and performativity of gendered identities and gendered behaviour, whose categories are historically contingent and shifting, and the boundaries between them blurry. Simone de Beauvoir (1973) stated "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman," a belief that has been taken up by many other theorists of gender including Judith Butler (1990). Gender studies to date has investigated the social construction of femininity more than that of masculinity. The multi-layered constructedness of gender is also underlined by Donna Haraway who understands it as a "socially, historically, and semiotically positioned difference" (Donna Haraway, 1988). Gender is understood as fluid, situational, and sometimes plural, and it is related to, though not commensurate with, sexual identity and orientation, just as it is related to but not defined by specific forms of embodiment. Rather than seeing biological sex as a pre-social or natural given, the body is understood as a site of inscription (cf. (Elizabeth Grosz, 1994) which is also socially constructed and indeed epigenetically shaped by environmental factors (N. Katherine Hayles, 2012). As articulated by feminist neurologist Gillian Einstein, (2012)"The world writes on the body." This ontology therefore does not provide separate terms for sex as distinct from gender. Instead, it privileges terms associated with gender, recognizing that they are conventionally but not necessarily associated with sex, and that there is constant slippage between gender and sex in the way that these categories circulate through discourses, actions, and institutions. Far from indicating a universal facet of experience, gender intersects with other identity categories and axes of oppression such as class, race or colour, or geographical heritage to produced quite different interests and experiences among people of the same gender, as with the intersection of religion and white masculine identity in the Muscular Christianity movement in nineteenth-century Britain. Being a woman of colour often compounds the impacts of gender oppression. Such interaction between different forms of oppression is termed "intersectionality" (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989). Where this class and its instances are concerned, readers are advised to consult gender context context annotations, if available. Where terms are applied to younger individuals, the gendered variants, such as “girl” for “woman”, are understood to apply.
Cette sous-classe de forme culturelle indique le genre d'une personne, qu'il soit attribué par d'autres ou autoproclamé, accompagné du contexte fourni par les annotations de genre en contexte lorsque celui-ci est disponible. Même si dans la culture populaire le genre et le sexe biologique sont confondus et compris comme binaires, le concept de genre souligne la dimension relationnelle, construite et performative des identités et des comportements genrés, dont les catégories sont contingentes et changent au cours de l'Histoire, sans qu'elles soient clairement délimitées. Cf Simone de Beauvoir : «On ne naît pas femme, on le devient,» et d'autres nombreuses théoriciennes du genre, dont Judith Butler en 1990 (Judith Butler, 1990). À ce jour, les études de genres se sont davantage intéressées à la construction de la féminité qu'à celle de la masculinité. Cette construction du genre à plusieurs niveaux est également soulignée par Donna Haraway qui le définit comme une «différence socialement, historiquement et sémiotiquement située» (Donna Haraway,1988). Le genre est interprété comme fluide, situationnel, parfois pluriel ainsi que lié à l'identité et l'orientation sexuelles sans leur être proportionnel, tout comme il est relié à certaines façons spécifiques de vivre et de présenter son corps, qui ne définissent pas non plus le genre. Plutôt que de voir le sexe biologique comme présocial ou un fait naturel, le corps est compris comme un lieu d'inscriptions (cf. (Elizabeth Grosz, 1994) qui est aussi socialement construit et épigénétiquement modelé par des facteurs environnementaux (N. Katherine Hayles, 2012). Selon la formulation de la neurologiste féministe Gillian Einstein, «Le monde écrit sur le corps» (Gillian Einstein, 2012). Cette ontologie ne fournit donc pas de termes séparés pour le sexe et le genre en tant qu'entités distinctes. Au contraire, elle privilégie les termes associés au genre, en admettant qu'ils sont conventionnellement mais non nécessairement associés au sexe, et qu'il existe un glissement constant de ces catégories au fil des discours, des actions et des institutions. Loin d'indiquer une part d'expérience universelle, le genre rencontre d'autres catégories identitaires et divers vecteurs d'oppression comme la classe, la race, la couleur ou l'héritage géographique, produisant des expériences et des intérêts très différents pour les personnes d'un même genre. Un exemple est le mouvement de la Chrétienté Musculaire, formé au Royaume-Uni au 19ème siècle, qui relie la religion à l'identité masculine. Une telle interaction entre différentes formes d'oppression est appelée «intersectionnalité» (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989). Les personnes qui utilisent cette classe et ses instances sont encouragées à consulter les annotations associées fournies par genre en contexte, si disponibles.
man
homme
male
Indicates identification with or labelling as the gender man, and who is often but not necessarily understood to be sexed male. Where terms associated with this label are applied to younger individuals, “boy” is understood to apply for “man”.
Indique l'identification ou l'assignation au genre masculin, et qui est souvent mais non nécessairement de sexe masculin.
undefined
genre indéterminé
Indicates that the person's gender is not disclosed by them or is not indicated in the source.
Indique que le genre de la personne n'est pas déterminé par elle·lui-même ou n'est pas indiqué dans la source.
woman
femme
female
Indicates a subject identification with or labelling as the gender woman, and who is often but not necessarily understood to be sexed female. "One is not born, but rather becomes, woman." (Simone de Beauvoir, 1973) Where terms associated with this label are applied to younger individuals, “girl” is understood to apply for “woman”.
Indique l'identification ou l'assignation au genre féminin, et qui est souvent mais non nécessairement de sexe féminin. «On ne naît pas femme, on le devient»: Simone de Beauvoir, Le deuxième sexe (1973)
cisgender
cisgenre
Indicates alignment between a person's gender identity and their sex as understood or assigned at birth. As per the Trans Student Educational Resources (TSER), "the term is not indicative of gender expression, sexual orientation, hormonal makeup, physical anatomy, or how one is perceived in daily life" (TSER, 2017).
Indique l'alignement entre le genre et le sexe d'une personne, tel que celui-ci a été compris ou assigné à sa naissance. Selon le Trans Student Educational Resources (TSER), «le terme n'est pas révélateur de l'expression du genre, de l'orientation sexuelle, de la constitution hormonale, de l'anatomie, ou de la façon dont une personne est perçue au quotidien» (TSER, 2017).
cis woman/cis female
femme cisgenre
Indicates a cisgendered woman.
Indique une femme cisgenre.
cis man/cis male
homme cisgenre
Indicates a cisgendered man.
Indique un homme cisgenre.
transgender
transgenre
transgendered
Indicates divergence of a person's gender identity from their sex as understood or assigned at birth. Unlike transwoman or transman, "the term transgender is not indicative of gender expression," nor is it indicative of "sexual orientation, hormonal makeup, physical anatomy, or how one is perceived in daily life."(TSER, 2017)
Indique la discordance entre le genre et le sexe d'une personne, tel que celui-ci a été compris ou assigné à sa naissance. Contrairement à femme trans ou homme trans, «le terme n'est pas révélateur de l'expression du genre, de l'orientation sexuelle, de la constitution hormonale, de l'anatomie, ou de la façon dont une personne est perçue au quotidien» (TSER, 2017).
trans man/trans male
homme trans
transgendered female to male
Typically indicates identification as a man while having been assigned the sex "female" at birth. Some trans men prefer to drop the prefix "trans" and keep the label "man" (TSER, 2017). This definition includes trans boys too.
Indique habituellement l'identification en tant qu'homme alors que le sexe «féminin» a été assigné à la naissance. Certains hommes trans renoncent à la mention «trans» et préfèrent utiliser le terme «homme» seul. (TSER, 2017). Cette définition inclut également les garçons trans.
trans woman/trans female
femme trans
transgendered male to female
Typically indicates identification as a woman while having been assigned the sex "male" at birth. Some trans women prefer to drop the prefix "trans" and keep the label "woman" (TSER, 2017). This definition includes trans girls too.
Indique habituellement l'identification en tant que femme alors que le sexe «masculin» a été assigné à la naissance. Certaines femmes trans renoncent à la mention «trans» et préfèrent utiliser le terme «femme» seul. (TSER, 2017). Cette définition inclut également les filles trans.
genderqueer
queer
Indicates refusal of dominant gender categories and cisnormativity, and identification with both, a combination, or neither of the dominant binary gender roles. The term is strongly associated with the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It comes from deconstructionist and post-structuralist theory, and was coined by Teresa de Lauretis at a conference in 1990. Because "queer" identity is recent, its definition is still debated among scholars and activists. Even though it is not rigidly defined, the term is increasingly deployed to refer to a large category of people who are not "straight", in a sense that is not restricted to sexual orientation. Following Judith Butler, queerness is not understood as an essence, but best described as a doing or performance, a way to situate oneself deliberately against traditional notions of gender. See Genderqueer - Wikipedia.
Indique le refus des catégories genrées dominantes et de la cisnormativité, l'identification aux deux, à aucun, ou à une combinaison des rôles genrés dominants. Le terme est fortement associé associé à la fin du 20e siècle et au 21e siècle. Il provient des théories déconstructionnistes et poststructuralistes, et fut formulé pour la première fois par Teresa de Lauretis lors d'une conférence en 1990. Du fait que le terme «queer» est assez récent, il est toujours sujet à des discussions parmi les chercheurs et les activistes. Même s'il ne possède pas de définition définitive, le terme est de plus en plus utilisé pour référer à une large catégorie de personnes qui ne sont pas «hétérosexuel/les», dans un sens qui va au-delà de l'orientation sexuelle. Selon Judith Butler, l'identité queer ne peut pas être compris comme une essence, mais est plutôt performative et s'actualise à travers des actions, au sein d'une posture délibérément à contre-courant des acceptions traditionnelles du genre. Voir See Non-binaire — Wikipédia.
androgynous
androgyne
Indicates gender ambiguity or indeterminacy, and the adoption or presentation of a blend of both masculine and feminine gender attributes and behaviour. The term is strongly associated with the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, when it was redefined by Jungian theories and later by Jungian feminist psychologists (Elizabeth Wright, 1992). Androgyny may involve cross-dressing, or appropriation of external attributes usually assigned to the supposedly opposite sex or gender. It may be understood as gender indetermination, gender neutrality, or a fairly balanced mix of male and female attributes. The term also has political significance in some feminist circles. For example, androgyny is an important feature in Virginia Woolf's vision of writing and creative processes (Virginia Woolf, 1929).
Indique l'ambiguïté ou à l'indétermination du genre, avec l'adoption ou la présentation d'une combinaison de différents attributs et comportements associés aux genres féminin et masculin. Le terme est fortement associé au 19e et au 20e siècles, lorsqu'il est redéfini par C. G. Jung et plus tard par les féministes jungiennes (Elizabeth Wright, 1992). L'androgynie implique éventuellement le travestissement, ou l'appropriation d'attributs externes traditionnellement associés au sexe opposé. Elle peut être interprétée comme un genre indéterminé, neutre ou un mélange plus ou moins équilibré d'attributs féminins et masculins. Le terme possède également une connotation politique dans certains cercles féministes. Par exemple, le thème de l'androgynie est important pour Virginia Woolf dans sa conception des processus de création et d'écriture. (Virginia Woolf, 1929).
sexuality
sexualité
A subclass of cultural form and linked to sexuality context, Sexuality properties indicate in a word or phrase identifications or aspects of sexuality (i.e., "lesbian," "monogamous," "heterosexual" but also "promiscuous") not as a means of shutting down but advancing investigation and critical analysis of these identifications. The association assumes that sexual identity does not function in an essentialist manner but can be plural and fluid, so multiple designations can be applied to a single person can be associated with multiple terms. Sexual identity may come from the subject her/himself or be ascribed by others. Terms may be in tension or mutually exclusive, they may reflect different life stages, and they may or may not reflect actual sexual practices. Linking a person to the term lesbianism as a sexual identity, for instance, does not necessarily signify that the subject was in any definitive sense a lesbian; such identifications are often impossible for reasons of historical gaps and silences. As far as living persons are concerned, our practice is to draw only on widely circulated public sources or disclosures from the subject her/himself in order to avoid inadvertently outing someone. See Campbell and Cowan, 2016
Une sous-classe de forme culturelle liée à sexualité en contexte, les propriétés de Sexualité indiquent en un mot ou en une phrase les identifications ou les aspects de la sexualité (par exemple «lesbienne», «monogame», «hétérosexuelle», mais aussi «promiscuité»), non pas pour clore la discussion mais pour développer l'étude et l'analyse critique de ces catégories. Comme l'identité sexuelle peut être plurielle et fluide, une même personne est susceptible d'être associée à plusieurs termes. L'identité sexuelle peut être formulée par la personne elle-même ou être assignée par d'autres individus. Les termes utilisés peuvent se trouver en tension ou se montrer incompatibles, et reflètent différentes périodes de l'existence. Par exemple, lier une personne au terme «lesbienne» comme classe de sexualité ne signifie pas nécessairement que cette dernière était définitivement lesbienne, car une telle identification est souvent impossible à cause de lacunes et de silences historiques. En ce qui concerne les personnes toujours en vie, nous ne nous appuyons que sur des sources ou des déclarations publiques faites par le sujet elle/lui-même afin de ne pas dévoiler par inadvertance des informations privées sur sa sexualité. Voir Campbell and Cowan 2016
heterosexuality
hétérosexualité
heterosexual
Heterosexuality indicates sexual attraction to the so-called "opposite sex," that is, sexual attraction between men and women. This understanding relies, like bisexual, on a binary understanding of sex and gender that also often conflates sex with gender. Adrienne Rich draws on Kathleen Gough in articulating an understanding of heterosexuality as compulsory for women within patriarchy. In her essay "The Straight Mind" (first published in 1980) Monique Wittig understands heterosexuality as a semiotic, linguistic, political, and ontological construct. It constitutes itself as a normative system through the oppression of women by men and the "necessity of the different/other at every level." The straight mind "creates the doctrine of the difference between sexes to justify this oppression."
L'hétérosexualité indique l'attraction sexuelle pour le sexe prétendument «opposé», c'est-à-dire entre les hommes et les femmes. Cette compréhension du terme repose, comme pour la bisexualité, sur une interprétation binaire du sexe et du genre, qui confond habituellement les deux notions. S'appuyant sur Kathleen Gough, Adrienne Rich interprète l'hétérosexualité comme obligatoire pour les femmes dans un contexte patriarcal. Dans son article «La pensée straight» (publiée pour la première fois en 1980) Monique Wittig interprète l'hétérosexualité comme une construction sémiotique, linguistique, politique et ontologique. Elle se constitue comme un système normatif qui passe par l'oppression des femmes par les hommes et la «la nécessité de l'autre différent à tous les niveaux». La pensée straight «produit la doctrine de la différence entre les sexes pour justifier cette oppression».
homosexuality
homosexualité
homosexual
male HOMOSEXUAL
Homosexuality indicates sexual attraction to subjects of the same gender. Like bisexuality, it draws on a binary understanding of sex and gender that also often conflates sex with gender. Homosexual is often used as an umbrella term for lesbian and gay sexuality.
L'homosexualité indique l'attraction sexuelle entre des sujets du même genre. Comme bisexuel, le terme repose sur une interprétation binaire et souvent indifférenciée du sexe et du genre. Homosexuel est souvent utilisé comme terme générique pour les sexualités lesbienne et gay.
lesbianism
lesbianisme
lesbian
Lesbianism indicates the sexual attraction of women to other women. Yet, lesbian feminist thinkers underline that this common definition is reductive. Drawing on Kathleen Gough and within an understanding of heterosexuality as compulsory for women within patriarchy, Adrienne Rich describes a lesbian continuum, the "range—through each woman's life and throughout history—of woman-identified experiences, not simply the fact that a woman has had or consciously desired genital sexual experience with another woman" (Rich, 1983). In a heteronormative context, lesbianism is not only a question of sexuality but also has complex political implications.
Le lesbianisme indique l'attraction sexuelle entre les femmes. Cependant, certaines intellectuelles lesbiennes féministes soulignent l'aspect réducteur d'une telle définition. S'appuyant sur Kathleen Gough, Adrienne Rich interprète l'hétérosexualité comme obligatoire pour les femmes dans un contexte patriarcal, et évoque un continuum lesbien, les «diverses expériences spécifiques aux femmes—au cours de leur existence ou à travers l'Histoire— et non simplement le fait qu'une femme a eu ou a consciemment désiré avoir des expériences sexuelles avec une autre femme» (Rich, 1983). Dans un contexte hétéronormatif, le lesbianisme ne relève donc pas seulement de la sexualité mais implique aussi des questions politiques complexes.
bisexuality
bisexualité
bisexual
Bisexuality indicates sexual attraction to both genders. In terms of binary understandings of sex or gender, bisexuality is often defined as being sexually attracted to "both sexes".
La bisexualité réfère à l'attraction sexuelle pour les deux genres. En terme d'acceptation binaire du sexe ou du genre, la bisexualité est souvent définie comme attraction sexuelle pour les «deux sexes».
asexuality
asexualité
asexual
Indicates a lack of interest in sex or sexual attraction to other subjects and is not to be confused with celibacy
celibacy
célibat
celibate
Celibacy indicates abstention from sex, and can stem from personal choice, religious prescriptions, or with religious occupations such as being a nun or priest. Celibacy is not the be confused with asexuality, which describes a lack of interest in sex or sexual attraction to other subjects.
Le célibat indique l'abstinence sexuelle, et peut être dû à un choix personnel, à des impératifs religieux ou des professions cléricales comme religieuse ou prêtre. Le célibat ne doit pas être confondu avec l'asexualité, qui décrit une absence d'intérêt pour les pratiques sexuelles ou d'attirance sexuelle pour d'autres personnes.
frigidity
frigidité
frigid
Frigidity labels a female subject as sexually withdrawn or unenthusiastic (read: non-consenting) in relation to the sexual advance, usually of men within a heterosexual framework, and suggests a lack of pleasure from sexual activities. Unlike asexual and celibate, this term is often ascribed to women, as opposed to self-referential. The term "frigid" was coined in the 1920s by sexologists (Sex and Society, Vol. 1, 285). Its use in discourse surrounding female sexuality is waning.
La frigidité est attribuée aux femmes qui se montrent distantes ou peu enthousiastes (comprendre non consentantes) face aux avances sexuelles, le plus souvent de la part d'hommes dans un cadre hétéronormé, et suggère un manque de plaisir associé aux pratiques sexuelles. Contrairement à l'asexualité et au célibat, ce terme est souvent assigné à des femmes, et n'est donc pas autoréférentiel. Le terme «frigide» a été formulé dans les années 20 par des sexologues (Sex and Society, Vol. 1, 285). Son usage est en déclin dans les discours à propos de la sexualité féminine.
promiscuity
promiscuité
promiscuous
Promiscuity indicates sex with multiple partners in a casual or indiscriminate fashion and in opposition to socially sanctioned sexual behaviour. Promiscuity is differently constructed for women and men in most historical and cultural contexts, being closely connected to the control of female sexuality and reproduction. It includes libertinism, a form of hedonistic sexual politics frequently ascribed to or adopted by men.
La promiscuité indique l'activité sexuelle avec des partenaires multiples de façon décomplexée et indifférenciée, en opposition aux pratiques sexuelles socialement acceptées. La promiscuité est différemment interprétée pour les femmes et les hommes dans la plupart des contextes historiques et culturelles, étant étroitement liée au contrôle de la sexualité féminine et de la reproduction. Elle inclut le libertinage, une forme de sexualité hédoniste fréquemment attribuée à ou adoptée par des hommes.
libertinism
libertinage
libertine
Libertinism refers to a type of sexual identity (often tied to men) used to describe a subject who subscribes to hedonistic sexual politics.
Le libertinage réfère à un type d'identité sexuelle (souvent pour des hommes) utilisé pour décrire un sujet adhérant aux idées et pratiques hédonistes.
race or colour
race ou couleur
A subclass of cultural form, this property indicates a person's race or colour, often as presumed, perceived, or otherwise assigned according to cultural conventions, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. Despite the ways in which categories of race or colour frequently serve heinous interests, their ideological and material impacts in the formation of identities requires recognition. These are shifting, historically constituted, and interestedly deployed categories whose use must be situated contextually and which are understood here finally as discursive or representational although they have real material impacts. They are thus as social constructs: "There is nothing more to being, or not being, a given race than the social acceptance and societal ascription of a race to a person" (Damon Sajnani, 2015). This ontology therefore does not attempt to lay out an exact, fully defined, or mutually exclusive set of racial categories: this is an impossibility given their shifting use and the overlap among them and with identity categories for ethnicity, geography, and nationality. Those applying this class and its instances are encouraged not to let privileged identities operate as an unspoken given or to use this class solely in relation to the marginalized. Those concerned about "white" and "black" as homogenizing categories are encouraged to reach for specificity through plural categories and representations of intersectionality, and to consult race or ethnicity context annotations, if available.
Sous-classe de forme culturelle, cette propriété indique l'appartenance raciale ou la couleur d'une personne, souvent telle qu'elle est présupposée, perçue ou autrement assignée selon des conventions culturelles, en parallèle avec le contexte fourni par les annotation de contexte ethnique ou racial lorsqu'il est présent. Même si les catégories de race ou de couleur sont fréquemment manipulées au service d'intérêts déplorables, leurs répercussions idéologiques et matérielles sur la formation identitaire requiert qu'on les prenne en compte. Ces catégories changeantes, historiquement constituées, développées de façon intéressée, et dont l'usage doit être resitué en contexte sont enfin comprises ici comme discursives et représentationnelles, même si leurs répercussions matérielles sont bien réelles. Ce sont donc des constructions sociales: «Le fait d'appartenir ou non à une race donnée n'est rien de plus que l'acceptation sociale et l'attribution sociétale d'une race à une personne» (Damon Sajnani, 2015). Cette ontologie ne prétend donc pas offrir un ensemble de catégories raciales exact, complètement défini, ou mutuellement exclusif, ce qui est impossible étant donné leur utilisation en changement constant et leur chevauchement mutuel ou avec d'autres catégories identitaires utilisées pour l'ethnicité, la géographie ou la nationalité. Les personnes qui appliquent ces catégories et sous-catégories sont encouragées à ne pas faire fonctionner les identités privilégiées comme si elles étaient consensuelles et évidentes, ou à utiliser cette classe seulement en relation avec des populations marginalisées. Les personnes préoccupées par le fait que «blanc» et «noir» sont des catégories homogénéisantes sont encouragées à atteindre la spécificité à travers la pluralité des catégories et les représentations intersectionnelles, ainsi qu'à consulter les annotations associés à contexte ethnique ou racial s'ils sont fournis.
blackwoman
femme noire
An intersectional identity that co-occurs with but is not reducible to the combination of "has gender identity woman" and "has race or colour identity black". See Black women - Wikipedia and (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989).
Une identité intersectionnelle qui résulte de la combinaison de "a le genre femme" et de "a une identité de race ou de couleur noire". Voir Afroféminisme — Wikipédia et (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1989).
Afro-Caribbean
Afro-Caribéens
"African-Caribbeans are Caribbean people who trace their heritage to Africa in the period since Christopher Columbus's arrival in the region in 1492. Other names for the group include African-Caribbean (especially in the UK branch of the diaspora), Afro-Antillean or Afro-West Indian. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, European-led triangular trade brought African people to work as slaves in the Caribbean on various plantations. Many Afro-Caribbeans also have non-African ancestry, such as European, South Asian, East Asian, Middle Eastern and Native American, as there has been intermarriage over the centuries." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Afro-Caribéens (Afro-Caribbeans) sont des habitants de la Caraïbe d'origine africaine, dont l'arrivée est postérieure à la découverte du continent américain par Christophe Colomb en 1492. Ils sont parfois nommés Africains-Caribéens (notamment dans la diaspora au Royaume-Uni), Afro-antillais ou Afro-Indiens de l'Ouest.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Indigenous (of the Americas)
Native American
"The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americans and their descendants. Pueblos indígenas or indígenas (lit. "indigenous peoples") is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries, and pueblos nativos or nativos (lit. "native peoples" in the sense of descendants of non-immigrants) may also be heard, while aborigen (aborigine) is used in Argentina, and pueblos aborígenes (aboriginal peoples) is common in Chile. The term "Amerindian" (short for "'Indians' of the Americas)" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which includes not only First Nations and Arctic Inuit, but also the minority population of First Nations-European mixed-race Métis people who identify culturally and ethnically with indigenous peoplehood. This is contrasted, for instance, to the American Indian-European mixed-race mestizos of Hispanic America (caboclos in Brazil) who, with their larger population (in most Latin American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous Americans, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic peoplehood in culture and ethnicity. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. Eventually, the Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (Spanish "indios") for the indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced by many over the last two centuries. Even though the term "Indian" does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas — such as the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second more recent wave of migration several thousand years ago, and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East — these groups are nonetheless considered "indigenous peoples of the Americas". Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples." (DBpedia, 2017) The term is deeply contested. See: Native American name controversy - Wikipedia
«Les Amérindiens, Indiens d'Amérique, Indiens ou encore Américains natifs, comme revendiqué par certaines peuplades, sont les habitants d'Amérique avant la colonisation européenne des Amériques.»(DBpedia, 2017)
Scottish
Scots
Scotch
"The Scottish people (Scots: Scots Fowk, Scottish Gaelic: Albannaich), or Scots, are a nation and socially defined ethnic group resident in Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of two groups—the Picts and Gaels—who founded the Kingdom of Scotland (or Alba) in the 9th century, and thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who also spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons and Norse, were incorporated into the Scottish nation." (DBpedia, 2018)
English
Anglais
"The English are a nation and an ethnic group native to England, who speak the English language. The English identity is of early medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Angelcynn ("family of the Angles"). Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who migrated to Great Britain around the 5th century AD. England is one of the countries of the United Kingdom." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Anglais sont les habitants de l’Angleterre. Le nom anglais les désignant est English, il est toujours employé au pluriel pour désigner collectivement tous les Anglais (un Anglais = an Englishman, une Anglaise = an Englishwoman). Il y a beaucoup de théories sur le peuplement de l’Angleterre. À cause d'un écart "celtique-germanique" sur les îles-britanniques, les historiens considèrent que l’Angleterre a été peuplée lors des invasions du Ve et VIe siècles par des peuples germaniques, ce qu'on appelle les Anglo-Saxons : c'est-à-dire essentiellement des Angles, des Jutes et des Saxons).Certains néanmoins, comme Stephen Oppenheimer, proposent que la différence génétique et culturelle entre les Anglais et les autres peuples britanniques s'est produite juste après le retrait du glacier qui se trouvait sur l'ensemble de la Grande-Bretagne. Cela signifierait que, contrairement à ce que l'on pense généralement, les Anglais sont aussi natifs que les Gallois et que les Écossais.[réf. souhaitée] Bien qu'il arrive assez souvent que certaines personnes utilisent le terme "Anglais" pour désigner plus largement les Britanniques, cet usage est incorrect puisque le Royaume-Uni est bien composé de quatre nations : l'Angleterre, le Pays de Galles, l'Écosse et l'Irlande du Nord. Selon une étude britannique menée à la fin des années 2000 par l'ONS (Office of National Statistics), l'homme anglais mesure en moyenne 175,3 cm (5ft 9in) pour un poids moyen de 83,6 kg (13.16 stone). La femme anglaise mesure en moyenne 161,6 cm (5ft 3in) pour un poids moyen de 70,2 kg (11 stone).» (DBpedia, 2018)
white
blanc
presumably white
"White people is a racial classification specifier, used for people of Europid ancestry, with the exact implications dependent on context. The contemporary usage of 'white people' or a 'white race' as a large group of (mainly European) populations contrasting with 'black', American Indian, colored' or non-white originates in the 17th century. It is today particularly used as a racial classifier in multiracial societies, such as the United States (White American), the United Kingdom (White British), Brazil (White Brazilian), and South Africa (White South African). Various social constructions of whiteness have been significant to national identity, public policy, religion, population statistics, racial segregation, affirmative action, white privilege, eugenics, racial marginalization and racial quotas. The term 'white race' or 'white people' entered the major European languages in the later 17th century, in the context of racialized slavery and unequal status in European colonies. Description of populations as 'white' in reference to their skin color predates this notion and is found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient sources. Scholarship on race generally distinguishes the modern concept from pre-modern descriptions of collective difference." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme Blanc est employé, dans le langage courant, pour désigner des êtres humains caractérisés notamment par une couleur de peau claire. Le terme est généralement employé pour désigner les individus présentant des caractéristiques physiques qui sont historiquement associées aux populations européennes. La définition d'un «individu blanc» diffère sensiblement d'après les contextes historiques, légaux, culturels, et géographiques. Dans certains contextes, en particulier aux États-Unis, le terme «caucasien» est utilisé comme synonyme. D'un point de vue biologique, la peau blanche est une adaptation génétique issue de la sélection naturelle favorisant la synthèse de la vitamine D en milieu faiblement ensoleillé en permettant une pénétration plus profonde des rayons de soleil dans l'épiderme du fait d'un taux de mélanine plus bas. Les latitudes tempérées sont moins soumises aux risques liés au rayonnement ultraviolet, à l'inverse des milieux fortement ensoleillés dans lesquels les individus ont la peau plus foncée.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Indian
"Indian people or Indians are citizens of India, the second most populous nation containing 17.50% of the world's population. "Indian" refers to nationality, but not ethnicity or language. The Indian nationality consists of many regional ethno-linguistic groups, reflecting the rich and complex history of India. India hosts all major ethnic groups found in the Indian Subcontinent. The diaspora populations with Indian ancestry, as a result of emigration, are somewhat widespread most notably in the UAE, Southeast Asia, United Kingdom, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Caribbean, and Southern Europe. Population estimates vary from a conservative 12 million to 20 million diaspora." (DBpedia, 2017)
«"Les Anglo-irlandais sont une population relativement privilégiée d'Irlande, du XIXe siècle et du début du XXe, descendant de colons protestants. Le terme s'applique également pour décrire les relations bilatérales entre la République d'Irlande et le Royaume-Uni comme pour le traité anglo-irlandais ou le Anglo-Irish Agreement. * Portail de l’Irlande Portail de l’Irlande * Portail du Royaume-Uni Portail du Royaume-Uni"» (DBpedia, 2018)
jew
"The Jews (/dʒuːz/; Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation, while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, in the part of the Levant known as the Land of Israel. The Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE (Late Bronze Age). The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, and the Kingdom of Judah. Some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as 'Hebrews'. Though few sources in the Bible mention the exilic periods in detail, the experience of diaspora life, from the Ancient Egyptian rule over the Levant, to Assyrian Captivity and Exile, to Babylonian Captivity and Exile, to Seleucid Imperial rule, to the Roman occupation, and the historical relations between Israelites and their homeland, became a major feature of Jewish history, identity and memory. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank, or less than 0.2% of the total world population (roughly one in every 514 people). According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel (6.4 million), and 40% in the United States (5.7 million), with most of the remainder living in Europe (1.4 million) and Canada (0.4 million). These numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of halakhic, secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding who is a Jew may affect the figure considerably depending on the source. Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and Basic Laws. Its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. Despite their small percentage of the world's population, Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields, including philosophy, ethics, literature, business, fine arts and architecture, religion, music, theatre and cinema, medicine, as well as science and technology, both historically and in modern times." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Juifs (en hébreu : יְהוּדִים / yehoudim, en grec ancien : Ἰουδαῖοι / Ioudaĩoi, en latin : Iudaei, etc.) sont les membres d'un peuple lié à sa propre religion, le judaïsme, et au sens large du terme à une appartenance ethnique et religieuse. La tradition juive relie leur ascendance aux patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob également appelé Israël. Ils peuplent la Judée et le royaume d'Israël, structurant leur quotidien autour de la Bible hébraïque, laquelle comprend les cinq Livres de la Torah attribués à Moïse, les Livres des prophètes ultérieurs et d'autres écrits. La Bible définit leurs croyances, leur histoire, leur identité nationale et légifère dans tous les domaines de leur vie. À la suite des aléas de leur histoire, les Juifs migrent ou sont déportés de la Judée et essaiment à travers le monde. La diaspora juive résulte principalement de la conjonction de deux facteurs, une volonté d'essaimage et la nécessité de fuir des persécutions. Tentant de conserver leur mode de vie ancestral au sein des populations avoisinantes dans lesquelles ils s'acculturent, ils développent des traditions religieuses, culinaires et des langues propres ainsi que d'autres traits spécifiques. Réciproquement, ils exercent un certain attrait sur leurs populations d'accueil et l'on enregistre dans l'Empire romain un nombre important de conversions au judaïsme. L'impact et la proportion de ces conversions font débat au sein des historiens. Leur histoire sur plus de deux millénaires en Europe est marquée par des persécutions qui culminent au xxe siècle avec la Shoah. Les grandes révolutions de l'ère moderne entraînent chez nombre d'entre eux une perte ou un abandon de tout ou partie des repères traditionnels. Plusieurs tentatives sont menées pour les redéfinir en tant qu'entité confessionnelle, nationale ou culturelle de sorte qu'en français, l'usage commun distingue entre les Juifs (avec une majuscule — les «personnes descendant de l'ancien peuple d'Israël») et les juifs (sans majuscule — «personnes qui professent le judaïsme»). Le nombre total des Juifs contemporains est difficile à estimer avec précision, et fait l'objet de controverses, mais, selon une estimation effectuée en 2013, il serait d'environ 13,8 millions. La majorité d'entre eux vit en Israël et aux États-Unis, et les autres principalement en Europe, au Canada et en Amérique latine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
eurasian
eurasien
"A Eurasian is a person of mixed Asian and European ancestry. In 19th-century British India, Eurasians — later called Anglo-Indians — were of mixed Portuguese, Dutch, British, Indian or, more rarely, French descent, but now their parentage may be from other parts of South, East or Southeast Asia. The term has been used in anthropological literature since the 1960s. It may also be extended to those with Central Asian heritage." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Un·e Eurasien·ne e est une personne d'ascendance mixte asiatique et européenne. Dans l'Inde britannique du XIXe siècle, les personnes d'ascendance eurasienne (plus tard anglo-indienne) étaient d'origine mixte portugaise, hollandaise, britannique, indienne ou, plus rarement, française, mais leur ascendance pouvait provenir d'autres régions de l'Asie du Sud, de l'Est ou du Sud-Est. Le terme est utilisé en anthropologie depuis les années 1960. Il peut également être étendu aux personnes possédant des origines d'Asie centrale.» (DBpedia, 2017)
mixed-race
métis
mixed white and black (or, in her own word, colored)
mixed-blood
mixed
racially mixed
coloured (mixed-race)
red mulatto
"Multiracial is defined as made up of or relating to people of many races. Many terms exist for people of various multiracial backgrounds. While some of the terms used in the past are considered insulting and offensive, there are many socially acceptable modern terms that multiracial people identify with. These include mixed-race, biracial, multiracial, métis, mestizo, pardo and mixed. Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in many parts of the world. In North America, studies have found that the multiracial population is continuing to grow. Because of a decline in racial discrimination, multiracial people no longer feel the need to hide their heritage. In many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, mixed-race people make up the majority of the population. Other areas where multiracial people make up a sizable portion of the population are the United Kingdom, the Middle East, parts of Africa and Asia, New Zealand, and Fiji." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme métis (du mot latin mixtīcius ou mixtus qui signifie «mélangé»/«mêlé») est employé, dans le langage courant, pour désigner des personnes nées de parents aux origines géographiques ou aux phénotypes différents. Le métissage humain est appelé créolisation aux Antilles, à La Réunion, à l'île Maurice, en Guyane ou au Brésil. Le métissage peut être aussi entendu comme un processus culturel (linguistique, artistique…). La pertinence analytique de la notion est contestée par des chercheurs en sciences sociales car elle supposerait qu'il existe des «entités pures», ou des races, distinctes au sein de l'espèce humaine.«Au Canada,»Métis (avec majuscule) désigne un peuple autochtone habitant principalement le centre du pays, descendant des femmes cries, ojibwés, saulteaux et de colons pour la plupart français.» (Wikipedia, 2017)
black
noir
"Black people (seen both capitalized and with lowercase 'b') is a term used in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification or of ethnicity, to describe persons who are perceived to be dark-skinned compared to other given populations. As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, 'black' is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result is neither used nor defined. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified as 'black', and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for 'blackness' vary. For example, in North America the term black people is not necessarily an indicator of skin color or ethnic origin, but is instead a socially based racial classification related to being African American, with a family history associated with institutionalized slavery. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are generally not classified as 'black'. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term 'black' or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La catégorie Noir(e) est généralement employée en français pour distinguer un être humain ayant la peau foncée. S'il désigne souvent des êtres humains originaires d'Afrique subsaharienne, ce terme peut être utilisé pour qualifier des personnes asiatiques (Papous...) ou océaniennes (Aborigènes...). Les études scientifiques, fondées depuis le milieu du xxe siècle sur la génétique, ont affirmé que le concept de race n'est pas pertinent pour caractériser les différents sous-groupes géographiques de l'espèce humaine car la variabilité génétique entre individus d'un même sous-groupe est plus importante que la variabilité génétique moyenne entre sous-groupes géographiques. Le consensus scientifique actuel rejette en tout état de cause la présence d'arguments biologiques pour légitimer la notion de race, reléguée à une représentation arbitraire selon des critères morphologiques, ethnico-sociaux, culturels ou politiques, comme les identités. D'un point de vue biologique la peau foncée est un épiderme qui comporte un fort taux de mélanine, c'est donc une adaptation génétique issue de la sélection naturelle permettant une protection face aux radiations UV dans les milieux fortement ensoleillés. Ces milieux sont moins soumis au risque de carence en vitamine D à l'inverse des pays faiblement ensoleillés dans lesquels les individus ont la peau claire.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Asian
Asiatique
"Asian people or Asiatic people are people who descend from a portion of Asia's population. There are varieties of definition and geographical data presented by organisations and individuals for classifying the ethnic groups in Asia."(DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme asiatique désigne une personne originaire d'Asie, et présentant des caractéristiques physiques d'Asie de l'Est, d'Asie du Sud-Est et de certaines régions d'Asie centrale. En français, l'adjectif asiatique désigne, au sens large, tout ce qui se rapporte à l'Asie : dans le langage courant, quand il se rapporte à des personnes, il est cependant essentiellement utilisé pour désigner les populations originaires de ces régions asiatiques. Les personnes originaires d'autres régions d'Asie comme le Moyen-Orient ou le sous-continent indien ne sont que rarement appelées Asiatiques, bien qu'elles le soient également au sens géographique.»
Creole
Créole
Describes a person often born in a European (often British) colony, of "mixed race" parentage, usually but not always the child of both "White" and so-called "non-White" ancestry. The term originally designated "parts of the population made up of Caribbean descendants of colonists, born and brought up in the New World. In the context of postcolonial studies, the term 'creolization' is conceived as 'the process of intermixing and cultural change that produces a Creole society,' especially in the Caribbean (Ashcrofts, Griffiths, and Tiffin 1998, 58)" (Hawley et al., Encyclopedia of Post Colonial Studies 116).
ethnicity
A subclass of Cultural Form for indicating a person's ethnicity, either as self-reported or as assigned by others, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. Ethnicities are groups constructed on the conception of shared national, religious, geographical, racial, or cultural backgrounds or traditions, and particular ethnicities may be denigrated, lauded, or both, depending on the context. Ethnicities are shifting, historically constituted, and interestedly deployed categories whose use must be situated contextually and which are understood here finally as discursive or representational although they have real material impacts. As Angel Oquendo writes, "Despite its long ‘materialist' past in which it was taken to be synonymous with ‘race,' the concept of ethnicity as used today does appear to focus on cultural rather than on physiognomic difference." (Angel R. Oquendo, "Re-imagining the Latino/a Race" in The Latino/a Condition: A Critical Reader edited by Richard Delgado, Jean Stefancic 1998. This ontology therefore does not attempt to lay out an exact, fully defined, or mutually exclusive set of ethnic categories: this is an impossibility given their shifting use and the overlap among them and with identity categories for race, geography, and nationality, as demonstrated by Noel Ignatieve in his book How the Irish Became White (Ignatieve, 1995). Those using this class and its instances are encouraged to consult associated race or ethnicity context annotations, if available.
Cette sous-classe de Forme Culturelle indique l'ethnicité d'une personne en parallèle avec le contexte fourni par les annotations de contexte ethnique ou racial lorsqu'il est présent. Une sous-classe de Forme Culturelle, elle indique l'ethnicité d'une personne, que celle-ci soit autodéclarée ou assignée par d'autres. Les ethnies sont des groupes qui se fondent sur une le partage de traditions ou d'héritages nationaux, religieux, géographiques, raciaux ou culturels; en fonction du contexte, certaines ethnies particulières sont dénigrées, glorifiées, ou les deux à la fois. Les ethnicités changeantes, historiquement constituées, développées de façon intéressée, et dont l'usage doit être resitué en contexte, sont enfin comprises ici comme discursives et représentationnelles, même si leurs répercussions matérielles sont bien réelles. Angel Oquendo écrit que «En dépit de son long passé ‘matérialiste' au cours duquel il était synonyme de ‘race', le concept d'ethnicité tel qu'il est employé aujourd'hui semble être centré sur la culture plutôt que sur la différence physionomique.» (Angel R. Oquendo, «Re-imagining the Latino/a Race» in The Latino/a Condition: A Critical Reader édité par Richard Delgado, Jean Stefancic) Cette ontologie ne prétend donc pas offrir un ensemble de catégories ethniques exact, complètement défini, ou mutuellement exclusif; cela est impossible étant donné leur utilisation en changement constant et leur chevauchement mutuel ou avec d'autres catégories identitaires utilisées pour la race, la géographie ou la nationalité. Les personnes qui utilisent cette classe et ses instances sont encouragées à consulter les annotations de contexte ethnique ou racial lorsqu'ils sont disponibles.
Indigenous/Amérindiens
Amer-Indians
Écossais
highland
Les Écossais correspondent au peuple et à la nation qui occupent l'Écosse. Ils sont les descendants des anciens Pictes, Gaëls, avec des apports de Bretons insulaires, d'Angles, de Saxons et de Normands (Vikings norrois, danois et plus tard les Normands de France).(DBpedia, 2018)
Gael
"The Gaels (English pronunciation: /ɡeːlˠ/; Irish: Na Gaeil; Scottish Gaelic: Na Gàidheil), also known as Goidels, are an ethnolinguistic group indigenous to northwestern Europe. They are associated with the Gaelic languages; a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic. Other ethnonyms historically associated with the Gaels include Irish and Scots, but the scope of those nationalities is today more complex. Gaelic language and culture originated in Ireland, extending to Dál Riata in southwest Scotland. In the Middle Ages, it became dominant throughout Scotland and the Isle of Man also. However, in most areas, the Gaels were gradually anglicized and the Gaelic languages supplanted by English. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout much of Great Britain and as far as the Americas and Oceania." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Gaels ou Goidels étaient un peuple celtique implanté dans les îles Britanniques (principalement en Écosse, en Irlande et sur l'île de Man) lors de la période protohistorique. Les Gaels auraient donné leur nom aux différents peuples gaéliques et à la famille des langues gaéliques. Le nom « Gael » a été adopté en 1810 à partir du gaélique écossais Gaidheal (en irlandais Gael et vieil irlandais Goidhel-Goídeleg) pour désigner un montagnard (EOD). Gael ou Goídeleg ont d'abord été utilisés comme un terme générique pour décrire les habitants d'Irlande. Dans son œuvre, Celtic Culture: Aberdeen breviary-celticism, John T. Koch , professeur de langue et littérature celtiques précise que la racine de ce mot correspond au vieil irlandais, fíad, au vieux breton, guoid, et au moyen gallois, gŵyh, tous signifiant sauvage, et donc Gael signifierait peuple de la forêt ou sauvages. Beaucoup de personnes qui ne parlent pas le gaélique se considèrent comme Gaels dans un sens plus large, en raison de leur ascendance historique et de leur héritage.»(DBpedia, 2017)
black African descent
"The ethnic groups of Africa number in the thousands, each generally having its own language (or dialect of a language) and culture. The ethnolinguistic groups include various Afro-Asiatic, Khoisan, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan populations." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Cet article propose une liste des groupes ethniques d'Afrique, non exhaustive (on peut en dénombrer près de 2 000 sur le continent africain et à Madagascar) et en cours d'élaboration. Comme il s'agit de sociétés vivantes, ces distinctions et divisions sont toujours discutées et en évolution, il n'en existe donc pas de représentation unique. La notion d'ethnie est controversée au sein de l'anthropologie contemporaine, notamment francophone. En particulier, il n'existe pas d'accord sur des critères permettant de délimiter tous les groupes (langue, culture, territoire, sentiment d'appartenance…) Ce répertoire alphabétique a donc surtout une finalité pratique. Il appartient à chaque article d'apporter précisions et mise en perspective historique.»(DBpedia, 2017)
African-American
Afro-américain
"African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans or Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group of Americans (citizens or residents of the United States) with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to include only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Afro-Américains, également appelés Noirs américains ou, plus rarement, Africains-Américains, sont les citoyens des États-Unis ayant des ancêtres originaires d'Afrique noire. La grande majorité des Afro-Américains est descendante des esclaves déportés entre le début du xviie et le début du xixe siècle. Longtemps victimes de l'esclavage, de la ségrégation raciale et de la discrimination (en), la reconstruction après la guerre de Sécession, la déségrégation et le Mouvement des droits civiques constituent autant d'étapes vers la reconnaissance des droits des Afro-Américains. L'accession de Barack Obama à la tête des États-Unis en 2009 constitue bien d'un certain point de vue la fin de ce long cheminement mais n'empêche pas que les classes sociales afro-Américaines les plus démunies soient toujours confrontées au racisme et à la discrimination, notamment par certains membres des forces de police américaine.»(DBpedia, 2017)
Ashkenazi Jewish
Juif ashkénaze
Ashkenazim, or German Jewish
Ashkenazim
"Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or simply Ashkenazim (Hebrew: אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi], Modern Hebrew: [aʃkenaˈzim, aʃkenaˈzi]; also יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכֲּנַז Y'hudey Ashkenaz), are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced as a distinct community of Jews in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the 1st millennium. The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews consisted of various dialects of Yiddish." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'appellation Ashkénaze, Ashkenaze ou Achkenaze désigne 'les Juifs de l'Europe occidentale, centrale et orientale qui sont d'origine et de langue germaniques par opposition à ceux qui sont originaires d'Espagne et sont dits séfarades (sefardim)' et aux Juifs descendant des communautés juives des régions proche et moyen-orientales dits Mizrahim. Leur nom vient du patriarche biblique Ashkenaz. Les communautés ashkénazes se sont principalement concentrées en Allemagne, en Pologne, en Russie, dans l'ancien Empire austro-hongrois et, de façon plus clairsemée, dans le reste de l'Europe centrale et orientale. Les Ashkénazes sont caractérisés par des coutumes, un héritage culturel et des traditions religieuses particulières. À la différence des communautés séfarades ou mizrahim, la langue vernaculaire des Ashkénazes est le yiddish5, variété de moyen-haut allemand enrichie d'emprunts à l'hébreu, au polonais et au russe6). Certaines sources attestent de leur présence dans toute l'Europe du nord-ouest au début du Moyen ge. Les Ashkénazes constituent aujourd'hui la catégorie la plus nombreuse du judaïsme mondial.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Bengali
"The Bengalis (বাঙালি Bangali), also spelled as the Bangalees, are a major Indo-Aryan ethnic group. They are native to the region of Bengal in South Asia, which is presently-divided between Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. They speak the Bengali language, the most easterly branch of the Indo-European language family. Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and the Arabs. They have four major religious subgroups, including Bengali Muslims, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Christians and Bengali Buddhists." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Bengalis (Bengali: বাঙালি Bangali) sont le principal groupe ethnique de la région du Bengale partagée entre le Bangladesh et l'Inde. Les langues Bengalis sont les principales langues maternelles des Bengalis. Ils sont majoritaires au Bangladesh et dans les États du Bengale-Occidental et de Tripura d'Inde. Ils représentent quelque 150 millions d'individus au Bangladesh, 70 millions en Inde, 3 millions au Pakistan et forment d'importantes minorités d'Arabie Saoudite et des Émirats arabes unis. Environ 65 % des Bengalis sont Musulmans, 34 % Hindous, et moins de 1% sont de diverses confessions (dont Chrétiens). Les Bengalis Musulmans vivent principalement au Bangladesh, ou ils constituent plus de 80 % des croyants. Le reste des Bengalis, Hindous, vivent en Inde, surtout au Bengale-occidental. Au Bangladesh, entre 11 et 15% de la population Bengalie est Hindoue.» (DBpedia, 2017)
"Black people (seen both capitalized and with lowercase 'b') is a term used in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification or of ethnicity, to describe persons who are perceived to be dark-skinned compared to other given populations. As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, "black" is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result is neither used nor defined. Different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as "black", and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. For example, in North America the term black people is not necessarily an indicator of skin color or ethnic origin, but is instead a socially based racial classification related to being African American, with a family history associated with institutionalized slavery. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are generally not classified as "black". In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term "black" or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La catégorie Noir(e) est généralement employée en français pour distinguer un être humain ayant la peau foncée. S'il désigne souvent des êtres humains originaires d'Afrique subsaharienne, ce terme peut être utilisé pour qualifier des personnes asiatiques (Papous...) ou océaniennes (Aborigènes…). Les études scientifiques, fondées depuis le milieu du xxe siècle sur la génétique, ont affirmé que le concept de race n'est pas pertinent pour caractériser les différents sous-groupes géographiques de l'espèce humaine car la variabilité génétique entre individus d'un même sous-groupe est plus importante que la variabilité génétique moyenne entre sous-groupes géographiques. Le consensus scientifique actuel rejette en tout état de cause la présence d'arguments biologiques pour légitimer la notion de race, reléguée à une représentation arbitraire selon des critères morphologiques, ethnico-sociaux, culturels ou politiques, comme les identités. D'un point de vue biologique la peau foncée est un épiderme qui comporte un fort taux de mélanine, c'est donc une adaptation génétique issue de la sélection naturelle permettant une protection face aux radiations UV dans les milieux fortement ensoleillés. Ces milieux sont moins soumis au risque de carence en vitamine D à l'inverse des pays faiblement ensoleillés dans lesquels les individus ont la peau claire.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Celtic
Celte
Highland
Highland (that is Celtic)
"A modern Celtic identity emerged in Western Europe following the identification of the native peoples of the Atlantic fringe as Celts by Edward Lhuyd in the 18th century. Lhuyd and others equated the Celts described by Greco-Roman writers with the pre-Roman peoples of France, Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish and ancient British languages were thus Celtic languages. The descendants of these languages were the Brittonic (Breton, Cornish and Welsh variants) and Gaelic (Irish, Manx and Scottish variants) languages. These peoples were therefore modern Celts. Attempts were made to link their distinctive cultures to those of the Ancient Celtic people." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Celtes constituent une civilisation protohistorique qui se définit par l'usage de langues celtiques et par certains particularismes culturels. Ils ont jadis été présents sur une grande partie du continent européen et en Asie mineure. L'apogée de l'expansion celte se situe entre le viiie siècle av. J.-C. et le iiie siècle, marqué notamment par la civilisation laténienne au ve siècle av. J.-C. Une succession de conquêtes et de migrations les mènent jusqu'en Galatie, en Asie mineure. Ainsi, leur domination s'étendait dans l'Europe actuelle de Galice jusqu'à Galați.» (DBpedia, 2017)
"The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans." (DBpedia, 2017)
Les Européens sont les habitants de l'Europe. Au sens anthropologique, ils peuvent, plus simplement, être désignés par leur couleur de peau, c'est-à-dire comme «Blancs», bien que ce dernier terme soit moins précis car n'étant pas exclusif aux populations européennes. Du fait de la colonisation et de l'émigration européennes durant les siècles passés, de nombreux Européens ont quitté l'Europe, et le monde d'aujourd'hui se caractérise par une 'diaspora' européenne dans de nombreux pays (Amérique du Nord, Australie, Nouvelle-Zélande, pays du Sud de l'Amérique latine…), qui forment le monde occidental. Ce gentilé peut aussi désigner, selon une conception strictement géographique, les habitants du continent européen ; on peut plus rarement désigner comme Européens les citoyens de l'Union européenne (même si tout Européen n'est pas nécessairement citoyen de l'Union Européenne). Wikipédia
Irish
Irlandais
irish ancestry
"The Irish people (Irish: Muintir na hÉireann or Na hÉireannaigh) are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies (see Prehistoric Ireland). For most of Ireland's recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people (see Gaelic Ireland). Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland in the 12th century, while England's 16th/17th century (re)conquest and colonization of Ireland brought a large number of English and Lowland Scots to parts of the island, especially the north. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland (an independent state), and the smaller Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kingdom)." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le peuple irlandais (en irlandais : Muintir na héireann, na héireannaigh ou na Gaeil) est un groupe ethnique d'Europe de l'Ouest originaire d'Irlande, une île de l'archipel des îles Britanniques. Les personnes d'appartenance ethnique irlandaise, vivant en dehors de ce pays, sont communes dans beaucoup de pays du monde occidental, particulièrement dans les pays anglophones. D'ailleurs, ce sont les États-Unis qui accueillent le plus grand nombre de personnes d'ascendance irlandaise avec environ la moitié de la population irlandaise mondiale, c'est-à-dire dix fois plus qu'en Irlande elle-même. Néanmoins, ce n'est qu'en République d'Irlande et en Irlande du Nord qu'ils forment la majorité de la population. À l'étranger, la langue Celte Irlandaise n'est pratiquement pas parlée, et cette langue s'efface surtout au profit de l'Anglais, en Amérique du Nord et en Océanie.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Juif séfarade
"Sephardi Jews, also known as Sephardic Jews or simply Sephardim (Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Hebrew: Sfaraddim, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm; also יְהוּדֵי סְפָרַד Y'hudey Spharad, lit. "The Jews of Spain"), are a Jewish ethnic division whose ethnogenesis and emergence as a distinct community of Jews coalesced in the Iberian Peninsula around the start of the 2nd millennium (i.e., about the year 1000). They established communities throughout Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Séfarades (parfois orthographié Sépharades) constituent une branche du judaïsme qui suit le judaïsme liturgique espagnol et portugais (en particulier dans la prononciation des mots des prières). Certains ont contribué aux sciences et techniques en al-Andalus comme Maïmonide, Abraham ibn Ezra, Juda Halevi, Nahmanide, Salomon ibn Gabirol et Moïse de Léon. Par extension, le terme «Séfarade» désigne aussi souvent les Juifs non ashkénazes qui ont souvent adopté le rite séfarade au contact des Juifs issus de l'émigration consécutive à l'expulsion des Juifs d'Espagne.» (DBpedia, 2017)
"White people is a racial classification specifier, used for people of Europid ancestry, with the exact implications dependent on context. The contemporary usage of 'white people' or a 'white race; as a large group of (mainly European) populations contrasting with 'black', American Indian, 'colored' or non-white originates in the 17th century. It is today particularly used as a racial classifier in multiracial societies, such as the United States (White American), the United Kingdom (White British), Brazil (White Brazilian), and South Africa (White South African). Various social constructions of whiteness have been significant to national identity, public policy, religion, population statistics, racial segregation, affirmative action, white privilege, eugenics, racial marginalization and racial quotas. The term 'white race' or 'white people' entered the major European languages in the later 17th century, in the context of racialized slavery and unequal status in European colonies. Description of populations as 'white' in reference to their skin color predates this notion and is found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient sources. Scholarship on race generally distinguishes the modern concept from pre-modern descriptions of collective difference." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme Blanc est employé, dans le langage courant, pour désigner des êtres humains caractérisés notamment par une couleur de peau claire. Le terme est généralement employé pour désigner les individus présentant des caractéristiques physiques qui sont historiquement associées aux populations européennes. La définition d'un 'individu blanc' diffère sensiblement d'après les contextes historiques, légaux, culturels, et géographiques. Dans certains contextes, en particulier aux États-Unis, le terme 'caucasien' est utilisé comme synonyme. D'un point de vue biologique, la peau blanche est une adaptation génétique issue de la sélection naturelle favorisant la synthèse de la vitamine D en milieu faiblement ensoleillé en permettant une pénétration plus profonde des rayons de soleil dans l'épiderme du fait d'un taux de mélanine plus bas2,3. Les latitudes tempérées sont moins soumises aux risques liés au rayonnement ultraviolet, à l'inverse des milieux fortement ensoleillés dans lesquels les individus ont la peau plus foncée.» (DBpedia, 2017)
a Jewish
Jew
Judaism
Jewry
Jews
one-quarter Jewish
«Les Juifs (en hébreu : יְהוּדִים / yehoudim, en grec ancien : Ἰουδαῖοι / Ioudaĩoi, en latin : Iudaei, etc.) sont les membres d'un peuple lié à sa propre religion, le judaïsme, et au sens large du terme à une appartenance ethnique et religieuse. La tradition juive relie leur ascendance aux patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob également appelé Israël. Ils peuplent la Judée et le royaume d'Israël, structurant leur quotidien autour de la Bible hébraïque, laquelle comprend les cinq Livres de la Torah attribués à Moïse, les Livres des prophètes ultérieurs et d'autres écrits. La Bible définit leurs croyances, leur histoire, leur identité nationale et légifère dans tous les domaines de leur vie. À la suite des aléas de leur histoire, les Juifs migrent ou sont déportés de la Judée et essaiment à travers le monde. La diaspora juive résulte principalement de la conjonction de deux facteurs, une volonté d'essaimage et la nécessité de fuir des persécutions. Tentant de conserver leur mode de vie ancestral au sein des populations avoisinantes dans lesquelles ils s'acculturent, ils développent des traditions religieuses, culinaires et des langues propres ainsi que d'autres traits spécifiques. Réciproquement, ils exercent un certain attrait sur leurs populations d'accueil et l'on enregistre dans l'Empire romain un nombre important de conversions au judaïsme. L'impact et la proportion de ces conversions font débat au sein des historiens. Leur histoire sur plus de deux millénaires en Europe est marquée par des persécutions qui culminent au xxe siècle avec la Shoah. Les grandes révolutions de l'ère moderne entraînent chez nombre d'entre eux une perte ou un abandon de tout ou partie des repères traditionnels. Plusieurs tentatives sont menées pour les redéfinir en tant qu'entité confessionnelle, nationale ou culturelle de sorte qu'en français, l'usage commun distingue entre les Juifs (avec une majuscule — les 'personnes descendant de l'ancien peuple d'Israël') et les juifs (sans majuscule — 'personnes qui professent le judaïsme'). Le nombre total des Juifs contemporains est difficile à estimer avec précision, et fait l'objet de controverses, mais, selon une estimation effectuée en 2013, il serait d'environ 13,8 millions. La majorité d'entre eux vit en Israël et aux États-Unis, et les autres principalement en Europe, au Canada et en Amérique latine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Romani
rom
gypsy
gypsies
gipsy
Roma
"The Romani (also spelled Romany; /ˈroʊməni/, /ˈrɒ-/), or Roma, are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group, living mostly in Europe and the Americas and originating from the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, presumably from where the states Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab exist today. The Romani are widely known among English-speaking people by the exonym "Gypsies" (or "Gipsies"), which some people consider pejorative due to its connotations of illegality and irregularity."(DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Roms (parfois écrit Rroms, également désignés en français sous les noms de Tziganes, Gitans, Bohémiens, Manouches ou Romanichels selon les pays d'où ils sont supposés venir notamment, par les appellations d'origine scientifique Kalés ou Sintis, ou encore gens du voyage par confusion ou vision fantasmée, l'immense majorité étant sédentaire) forment un ensemble de populations établies dans divers pays du monde et se considérant comme formant un seul peuple, en raison de leur origine et de leur culture communes. Originaires de la péninsule indienne, avec des langues initiales qu'on croit originaires du nord-ouest du sous-continent indien, ce peuple, constitué de minorités vivant entre l'Inde et l'Atlantique, puis sur le continent américain, est connu par diverses dénominations exonymes locales. Rom se propose comme une appellation endonyme unique, signifiant «homme accompli et marié au sein de la communauté» en langue romani. Présentes en Europe dès le xie siècle, les populations roms de tous les pays formeraient ensemble, au xxie siècle, selon une étude faite en 1994 pour le conseil de l'Europe, la minorité 'la plus importante en termes numériques.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Thracian
thrace
Thracians
"The Thracians (/ˈθreɪʃənz/; Ancient Greek: Θρᾷκες Thrāikes, Latin: Thraci) were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting a large area in southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family. The study of Thracians and Thracian culture is known as Thracology." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Thraces constituaient un peuple de langue paléo-balkanique (donc indo-européenne) dont les tribus, signalées dans les Balkans en même temps que les Achéens, les Éoliens et les Ioniens, partageaient un ensemble de croyances, un mode de vie et une même langue avec des variantes et dialectes. Leur civilisation, encore mal connue, s'est épanouie du IIe millénaire av. J.‑C. au iiie siècle av. J.-C., sur un substrat anté-indo-européen dit «pélasge» développé dès le Ve millénaire av. J.‑C. comme civilisation agricole et pourvue de nécropoles richement dotées en or. L'étymologie de ce nom reste incertaine. Orale, la culture des Thraces était faite de légendes et de mythes incluant la croyance en l'immortalité sous la forme de l'«orphisme», décrit par Hérodote. Les connaissances que nous avons de ce peuple viennent des auteurs grecs anciens et de découvertes archéologiques récentes.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Wendish
Wende
Wends or Sorbs
"Wends (Old English: Winedas, Old Norse: Vindr, German: Wenden, Winden, Danish: vendere, Swedish: vender, Polish: Wendowie) is a historical name for the West Slavs living near Germanic settlement areas. It does not refer to a homogeneous people, but to various peoples, tribes or groups depending on where and when it is used." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nom de Wendes, transcription germanique du latin Venedi, peut avoir plusieurs sens : Les Wendes (Venedi) en l'an 125, dans la perspective historique. Le mot désigne l'ensemble des Slaves. dans une perspective historique, communément admise par les milieux universitaires, l'ethnonyme Wenden désigne toutes les tribus slaves en allemand : c'est le nom donné au Moyen ge par les Allemands à tous les peuples slaves établis sur le territoire délimité par l'Oder, la Spree, la Saale et les monts Métallifères. Les Wendes de la basse Elbe et de la côte Baltique étaient des Polabes et des Obodrites, ceux du sud-est des Slovinces et ceux de l'Elbe supérieure des Sorabes.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Chinese
Chinois
"Chinese people are the various individuals or groups of people associated with China (or Greater China), either by reason of ancestry, heredity, ethnicity, nationality, citizenship, place of residence, or other affiliation." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Chinois sont les différents individus ou groupes de personnes associés à la Chine (ou à la Grande Chine), en raison de leur ascendance, leur hérédité, leur ethnie, leur nationalité, leur citoyenneté, leur lieu de résidence ou d'autre affiliation.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Igbo
"The Igbo people, also erroneously known as the "Ibo people" (because certain Europeans had difficulty making the /ɡ͡b/ sound), are an indigenous linguistic and cultural people of southern Nigeria. Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into two unequal sections by the Niger River– an eastern (which is the larger of the two) and a western section. Culturally and linguistically, the Niger River has provided an easy means of communication and unity amongst the Igbo natives on both sides, as well as promoted ancient trade and movement of peoples between Igboland and the rest of the world." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Jeune femme igbo en tenue de cérémonielors d'un festival culturel Fichier:LocationIgboland.png Carte de répartition Les Igbos sont une ethnie habitant le sud - est du Nigéria. Ils constituent 18 % de la population du pays et donc, représentent ainsi le 3e groupe ethnique le plus important du pays.Ils parlent la langue igbo, une langue de type nigéro - congolais. Ce sont des agriculteurs majoritairement chrétiens, dont la société est basée sur un système de classes d'âges.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Anglo-Norman
Baronnage anglo-normand
"The Anglo-Normans were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Angles and Normans, following the Norman conquest. A small number of Normans had earlier befriended future Anglo-Saxon King of England, Edward the Confessor, during his exile in his mother's homeland of Normandy. When he returned to England some of them went with him, and so there were Normans already settled in England prior to the conquest. Following the death of Edward, the powerful Anglo-Saxon noble, Harold Godwinson, acceded to the English throne until his defeat by William, Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le baronnage anglo-normand (« baronage » en anglais) correspond principalement à la noblesse du duché de Normandie qui a reçu des terres en Angleterre à partir du temps de Guillaume le Conquérant après la bataille de Hastings d'octobre 1066. Comme les Varègues dans la Russie kiévienne des IXe au XIe siècles, il s'agit d’une noblesse d’origine étrangère vis-à-vis d’une population autochtone largement majoritaire, anglo-saxonne et danoise notamment en ce qui concerne l’Angleterre.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Arab
Arabe
"Arabs (Arabic: عرب‎‎, ‘arab) are a panethnicity of peoples whose native language is a variety of Arabic. They primarily inhabit Western Asia, North Africa, and parts of the Horn of Africa and East Africa. Before the spread of Islam, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern and central Arabian Peninsula. In modern usage Arab refers to a heterogeneous collection of Arabic-speaking peoples in Western Asia and North Africa. The ties that bind Arabs are linguistic, cultural, political, and ethnic, with Arabized Arabs displaying genetic contributions, in varying proportions, from both indigenous elements and the Arabian peninsula. As such, Arab identity is based on one or more of genealogical, linguistic or cultural grounds, although with competing identities often taking a more prominent role, based on considerations including regional, national, clan, kin, sect, and tribe affiliations and relationships. Not all people who could be considered Arab identify as such. If the Arab pan-ethnicity is regarded as a single population, then it constitutes the world's second largest group of people after the Han Chinese. The Arabian Peninsula itself was not entirely Arab linguistically or culturally before the spread of Islam. Arabization occurred in the southern and eastern regions of the peninsula. For example, the language shift to Arabic displaced the distinct Old South Arabian languages from what is now modern-day Yemen and southern Oman. These were the languages spoken in the civilizations of Sheba, Magan, and Dilmun." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Arabes sont des individus anthropologiquement différents les uns des autres mais qui s’identifient par des liens linguistiques et/ou culturels. Ils sont répartis sur une vaste zone qui s’étend d’Oman à la Mauritanie. Cela comprend les descendants d'habitants de la péninsule arabique qui ont migré au nord et à l'ouest et qui parlent des variantes de l'arabe, une langue sémitique. Ainsi définis, ils sont estimés à environ 450 millions dans le monde. Ils sont principalement présents en Asie occidentale, en Afrique et en Europe occidentale.» (DBpedia, 2018)
"The term Creole and its cognates in other languages — such as crioulo, criollo, creolo, créole, kriolu, criol, kreyol, kreol, kriol, krio, etc. — have been applied to people in different countries and epochs, with rather different meanings. Typically, are partially or fully descended from Caucasian European colonial settlers. Their language, culture and/or racial origin represents the creolization resulting from the interaction and adaptation of colonial-era emigrants from Europe with non-European peoples, climates, and cuisines." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le terme créole, à la fois nom et adjectif, en espagnol ancien creollo, devenu criollo. La première nation créole du monde fut les iles du cap-vert, découvertes par les portugais en 1456 et très vite peuplées d'européens et d'esclaves africains dont le métissage créa le premier peuple créole du monde, le Crioulo. Le mot crioulo dériverait du portugais "criado" qui signifie "serviteur". Le créole fut ensuite "exporté" aux Amériques après la découverte de l'Amérique par Christophe Colomb en 1492. Le terme créole est passé dans les langues française et anglaise entre 1595 et 1605, désigne d'une façon générale une personne née dans une ancienne colonie de parents venus d'ailleurs. Il est souvent compris restrictivement comme s'appliquant à une personne d'ascendance européenne.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Parsi
"Parsi /ˈpɑːrsiː/ (or Parsee) is one of two Zoroastrian communities (the other being Iranis) primarily located in South Asia. According to the Qissa-i Sanjan, Parsis migrated from Greater Iran to Gujarat and Sindh between the 8th and 10th century CE to avoid the persecution of Zoroastrians following the Muslim conquest of Persia. The word پارسیان, pronounced "Parsian", i.e. "Parsi" in the Persian language literally means Persian. Persian is the official language of modern Iran, which was formerly known as Persia, and the Persian language's endonym is Farsi, an arabization of the word Parsi." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Pārsis, Parsis ou Parses (de Pārashika, peuple de Perse, actuel Iran ; gujarātī : પારસી) sont les adeptes du parsisme, confession dérivée du zoroastrisme. Ils constituent l'une des deux communautés zoroastriennes (l'autre étant celle des Iranis) ayant quitté le monde iranien pour s'installer principalement en Inde. À la suite de la conquête de la Perse par les musulmans qui venaient de subjuguer la Palestine, la Syrie et l'Irak, une partie de la population s'enfuit vers l'est et s'installa en Inde.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Slav
Slave
Slavic
"Slavs are the largest Indo-European ethno-linguistic group in Europe. They are native to Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, Northeastern Europe, North Asia and Central Asia. Slavs speak Indo-European Slavic languages. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Europe. States with slavic-based languages comprise over 50% of the territory of Europe.Present-day Slavic people are classified into West Slavs (chiefly Poles, Czechs and Slovaks), East Slavs (chiefly Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians), and South Slavs (chiefly Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, ethnic Macedonians, Slovenes, Montenegrins of the Former Yugoslavia and Bulgarians). Modern Slavic nations and ethnic groups are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them – even within the individual ethnic groups themselves – are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to mutual feelings of hostility." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Slaves sont des peuples d'origine européenne. Les Slaves sont surtout présents en Europe centrale et en Europe de l'Est. Les ancêtres Indo-Européens des Slaves, proches des Baltes et des Germains sur le plan ethnolinguistique, sont connus depuis la fin du Ier millénaire avant notre ère. Ils sont situés le plus souvent au nord de l'Ukraine et au sud de la Biélorussie, dans une région située à la confluence du Dniepr et de la rivière Pripiat. Mais, les auteurs anciens ne commencent réellement à les mentionner qu'à partir du VIe siècle de notre ère.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Jamaican
Jamaïcains
Jamaican-born
"Jamaicans are the citizens of Jamaica and their descendants in the Jamaican diaspora. Most Jamaicans are of African descent, with smaller minorities of Europeans, East Indians, Chinese, Mixed-Race, and others. The bulk of the Jamaican diaspora resides in Canada, United States, Panama and the United Kingdom and in the other Anglophone countries." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Jamaïcains sont les citoyens de la Jamaïque et leurs descendants dans la diaspora jamaïcaine. La plupart des Jamaïcains sont d’ascendance africaine, avec des minorités moins nombreuses d’Européens, d’Indiens de l’Est, de Chinois, de métis et d’autres. La majeure partie de la diaspora jamaïcaine réside au Canada, aux États-Unis, au Panama et au Royaume-Uni et dans d'autres pays anglophones.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Punjabi
Pendjabis
"The Punjabis (Punjabi: پنجابی, ਪੰਜਾਬੀ, पंजाबी), or Punjabi people, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group originating from the Punjab region, found in Pakistan and northern India. Punjab literally means the land of five waters (Persian: panj ("five") āb ("waters"). The name of the region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire. Punjab is often referred to as the breadbasket in both Pakistan and India. The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE. Prior to that the sense and perception of a common "Punjabi" ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist, even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic, cultural and racial commonalities. Traditionally, Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural. Its identity is independent of historical origin or religion, and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region, or associate with its population, and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue. Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections. More or less all Punjabis share the same cultural background. Historically, the Punjabi people were a heterogeneous group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari (literally meaning "brotherhood") or tribes, with each person bound to a clan. However, Punjabi identity also included those who did not belong to any of the historical tribes. With the passage of time tribal structures are coming to an end and are being replaced with a more cohesive and holistic society, as community building and group cohesiveness form the new pillars of Punjabi society." (DBpedia, 2018)
Les Pendjabis (en pendjabi : پنجابی / ਪੰਜਾਬੀ) sont un groupe ethnolinguistique associé à la région du Pendjab, parlant le pendjabi, une langue indo-aryenne. Pendjab signifie littéralement « terre des cinq eaux » (du persan : panj (« cinq »), āb (« eaux »)). Cette région a été mentionnée chez les Grecs sous le nom de Pentapotamie20, qui fut traduit plus tard en persan par les conquérants turco-persans21 de l'Asie du Sud et qui seront plus connus durant l'Empire moghol. Le Pendjab est souvent qualifié de grenier à blé du Pakistan et de l'Inde. La coalescence de diverses tribus, castes et des habitants du Pendjab en une identité pendjabie plus large a commencé au début du xviiie siècle. Avant cela, le sentiment et l'idée d'une identité et d'une communauté ethnoculturelles pendjabies n'existaient pas, même si une majorité des communautés du Pendjab partageaient depuis longtemps des points communs linguistiques, culturels et ethniques. Traditionnellement, l'identité pendjabie est principalement linguistique, géographique et culturelle. Son identité est indépendante de l'origine historique ou de la région, et désigne ceux qui résident dans la région du Pendjab, ou se sentent associés avec ses habitants, et ceux qui considèrent le pendjabi comme leur langue maternelle. L'intégration et l'assimilation sont des éléments importants de la culture pendjabie, puisque l'identité pendjabie n'est pas basée uniquement sur des liens tribaux. Tous les Pendjabis partagent plus ou moins un même socle culturel.(DBpedia, 2018)
religion
A subclass of cultural form, this describes a person's religion(s) or belief system(s). Note that while atheism denotes the absence of religion, we use the Religion label for convenience.
Une sous-classe de forme culturelle,décrit la/les religion(s) ou le(s) système(s) de croyance d'une personne. Notez que par commodité nous utilisons l'étiquette Religion pour l'athéisme, même si le terme indique l'absence de religion.
Anglicanism
英國聖公會 (英國國教)
yīng guó shèng gōng huì
ying guo sheng gong hui
ying kuo sheng kung hui
Anglicaans (kerk van Engeland)
Anglicanismo
Iglesia de Inglaterra
Église d'Angleterre
Church of England
Anglican Church
High Anglican
High Church
Low Church
Low-Church
Anglo-Catholic
Episcopalian
Church of Ireland
"A Christian denomination having both Protestant and Catholic aspects that originated with Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic Church (ca. 1532-34). As the official state Church of England, the monarch of England is still formally considered its head. While at first it remained mainly Catholic in character, reforms came under Edward IV and Elizabeth I who introduced doctrine that was more Protestant in nature, namely new editions of the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-nine Articles. Although an overall attitude of toleration exists in the modern Anglican Church, tension remains between its Protestant and Catholic inclinations as well as with newer liberal and evangelical influences. Anglicanism is based on episcopal authority and parish structure is fundamental to the organisation of the church. The term is used with regard to the Church of England; with regard to the Episcopal Church in America, use "Episcopal."" (Getty, 2017)
"Te gebruiken om te verwijzen naar de anglicaanse kerk (Church of England); gebruik 'episcopaal' om te verwijzen naar de episcopale kerk in Amerika. De term verwijst naar een christelijke geloofsrichting met zowel protestantse als katholieke elementen die ontstond na de breuk tussen de Engelse koning Hendrik VIII en de rooms-katholieke kerk (circa 1532-34). Het anglicanisme is de officiële Britse staatsgodsdienst, en de Britse soevereine vorst is nog altijd het officiële hoofd van de anglicaanse kerk. Aanvankelijk droeg de kerk nog een overwegend katholiek karakter, maar onder Edward IV en Elizabeth I werden er hervormingen doorgevoerd en werd een meer protestants georiënteerde geloofsleer geïntroduceerd, met een nieuwe versie van het Book of Common Prayer en de Negenendertig Artikelen. Hoewel de huidige anglicaanse kerk in het algemeen wordt gekenmerkt door een tolerante houding, zijn de spanningen tussen protestants en katholiek gezinde stromingen binnen de kerk nooit verdwenen en heerst er weerstand tegen nieuwe vrijzinnige en evangelische invloeden. Het anglicanisme berust op episcopaal gezag en op een structuur van parochies, welke van fundamenteel belang is voor de kerkelijke organisatie." (Getty, 2017)
"Úsese con referencia a la Iglesia de Inglaterra y también con referencia a la Iglesia Episcopal de Estados Unidos (úsese Iglesia Episcopal). Este término s erefiere a a una denominación cristiana que contiene elementos católicos y protestantes en varios aspectos y que se originó con el rey Enrique VIII quien rompió con la Iglesia Católica Romana (ca. 1532-1534) Es la iglesia oficial de Inglaterra, la Monarquía Inglesa es aún formalmente considerada su cabeza.Mientras en sus comienzos conservaba su carácter católico, con las reformas realizadas bajo Eduardo IV e Isabel I quienes introdujeron una doctrina que está más cerca del protestantismo y que se encuentra contenida en nuevas ediciones del Libro de Oraciones Comunes y en los Treinta y nueve Artículos. Aunque el anglicanismo tiene actualmente una actitud de total tolerancia, aún persisten tensiones con las iglesias protestantes y católicas así como de últimas influencias liberales y evangélicas.El Anglicanismo está basado en la autoridad episcopal y se sustenta en una estructura de parroquias que resulta fundamental para la organización de la Iglesia." (Getty, 2017)
"英王亨利八世與羅馬天主教教會(西元1532-34年)分裂所創的基督教派別，同時含有新教與天主教元素。作為官方英國國教，其正式教會首腦仍為英國國王。起初較具天主教特色，在愛德華四世與伊莉莎白一世時改革，加入較具新教本質的教條，即：新版的公禱書(Book of Common Prayer)及三十九條信綱(Thirty-nine Articles)。雖然現代的英國聖公會大體上態度已越顯寬容，但教會內的新教派系與天主教派系關係仍緊繃，也仍不樂於接受較新的自由與福音派影響。英國聖公會奠基於主教的權威上，牧師教區的結構對教會組織十分重要。此詞彙用於指稱英國國教；美國區的主教派教會，則稱為「美國聖公會(Episcopal)」。" (Getty, 2017)
The description for this term is indebted to the Getty Art & Architecture Thesaurus.
«L'anglicanisme est une confession chrétienne présente principalement dans les pays qui ont pu être imprégnés par la culture anglaise incluant notamment, outre l'Angleterre, les anciennes colonies britanniques en Amérique et en Afrique. On retrouve tout de même plusieurs communauté anglicanes dans le monde, notamment en France. L'origine de cette confession remonte à la période antique de l'Église d'Angleterre, lorsque celle-ci était unie canoniquement et juridiquement à l'évêque de Rome. Puis, au XVIe siècle, lorsque le roi d'Angleterre Henri VIII rompit avec le pape de Rome pour causes politiques et théologiques. Ainsi, Henri VIII ne créa rien de nouveau : il extirpa l'autorité du pape de son royaume, sans pour autant modifier ou jeter de nouvelles bases théologiques pour l'Église, et remplaça l'autorité papale par la sienne propre. Depuis la reine Elizabeth Ire, le monarque a le titre de «gouverneur suprême», mais n'a qu'un rôle de maintien de l'ordre et du bon déroulement de la vie ecclésiale, mais aucune réelle autorité décisionnelle comme celle d'un évêque ou d'un synode. L'Archevêque de Canterbury porte le titre de «primat de toute l'Angleterre» et l'archevêque d'York porte quant à lui le titre de «primat de l'Angleterre». L'Église anglicane, tout comme l'Église orthodoxe, est une communion d'églises autocéphales, mais néanmoins interdépendantes. Bien que plusieurs églises anglicanes existent à travers le monde, comme c'est le cas pour l'Église catholique romaine (présente en France, en Espagne, etc.), ou encore pour l'Église orthodoxe (présente en Russie, en Serbie, etc.), il ne s'agit que d'une seule Église. Elles sont rassemblées dans la Communion anglicane , au sein de laquelle l'Église d'Angleterre et son primat, l'archevêque de Canterbury, ne jouissent que d'une primauté d'honneur. Ces églises sont en pleine communion (doctrinale, spirituelle, épiscopale, sacramentelle) les unes avec les autres et représentent ensemble environ 85 millions de fidèles. Les Églises de la Communion anglicane ont une structure épiscopale. Elles se disent à la fois catholiques et réformées, et l'anglicanisme a souvent été présenté comme une via media entre le catholicisme romain et le protestantisme. Elles se présentent comme des Églises catholiques non romaines, parce qu'elles se veulent en continuité avec la tradition apostolique (ainsi la patristique est très développée dans le monde anglican) et affirment avoir conservé la succession apostolique. L'Église orthodoxe du patriarcat œcuménique de Constantinople a reconnu la validité de la succession apostolique en 1922 ; cependant, d'autres patriarcats, comme celui de Russie, ne saurait reconnaître une quelconque succession apostolique, en autre par le fait de l'ordination épiscopale de femme, depuis janvier 2015. L'Église catholique romaine ne leur reconnait pas cette qualité : ainsi par la lettre apostolique Apostolicae Curae le pape Léon XIII déclare en 1896 «nulles et sans valeur» les ordinations anglicanes (doctrine confirmée par le motu proprio Ad Tuendam Fidem en 1998). Les archevêques anglicans de Canterbury et d'York ont donné leur réponse dans Saepius officio. Pour autant, lors du concile Vatican II est affirmée la «place particulière» des Anglicans, «qui gardent en partie les traditions et les structures catholiques». Par ailleurs, les Églises anglicanes se disent réformées parce qu'elles ont adhéré à certains principes nouveaux issus de la Réforme protestante en matière de doctrine et de liturgie.À l'origine, la doctrine anglicane est énoncée dans les Trente-neuf articles (Bill of XXXIX articles) qui ont longtemps eu une valeur impérative. L'éventail entre les positions doctrinales s'est ensuite élargi et donne lieu à de nombreuses classifications (Haute Église, Basse Église, Broad Church (en), Anglo-catholicisme, Évangélisme…). Alors que pendant longtemps la coexistence apaisée entre de telles positions divergentes était considérée comme une spécificité de l'anglicanisme, la communion est depuis la fin du XXe siècle soumise à de forts tiraillements sur certaines questions, notamment l'ordination des femmes et la position par rapport à l'homosexualité.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Baptist Christianity
浸禮宗
浸禮派
浸信會
jìn lǐ zōng
jin li zong
chin li tsung
Baptisme
Baptismo
Baptistas
Baptist
Particular Baptist
Baptist Church
"Refers to a Protestant denomination centered around the belief that the sacrament of baptism should only be administered to adult members after a personal profession of belief in Jesus Christ. Baptism in this faith is usually done by full immersion. Emphasis is placed on biblical scripture and preaching. The Baptist denomination is primarily derived from early 17th-century England and Wales where it quickly spread although there are some links with the Anabaptists of the 16th century. Baptist churches very rapidly increased in the late 19th century in the United States." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar een protestantse gezindte waarbij het geloof centraal staat dat het sacrament van de doop alleen moet worden toegediend aan volwassen leden na een persoonlijke belijdenis van geloof in Jezus Christus. De doop vindt bij deze gezindte doorgaans plaats door volledige onderdompeling. De nadruk ligt op Bijbelse geschriften en preken. Het baptisme is in hoofdzaak ontstaan in de vroege 17de eeuw in Engeland en Wales waar het zich snel verspreidde, hoewel er enige verbanden zijn met de anabaptisten van de 16de eeuw. In de late 19de eeuw nam het aantal baptistische kerken in de Verenigde Staten snel toe." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a la religión protestante centrada en torno a la creencia que el sacramento del bautismo debería ser administrado sólo a miembros adultos tras una manifestación personal de creencia en Jesucristo. El bautismo en esta fe es usualmente hecho por inmersión total. El énfasis es puesto en las Escrituras Bíblicas y la oración. La denominación baptista deriva principalmente de la Inglaterra y Gales del siglo XVII en donde rápidamente se difundió a pesar que hay algunas conexiones con los Anabaptistas del siglo XVI. La iglesia baptista creció rápidamente en el siglo XIX en los Estados Unidos." (Getty, 2017)
"一支新教派別，相信只有親自聲明信仰基督的成人才可受洗。此教的洗禮通常需全身浸洗。重視聖經經文與佈道。浸信會與十六世紀的重浸派有些淵源，但主要源於十七世紀初的英格蘭與威爾斯，在這兩處快速廣傳。其教會於十九世紀末在美國急速增加。" (Getty, 2017)
«Le baptisme est un courant chrétien évangélique issu d'un réveil démarré par les pasteurs anglais John Smyth en Hollande en 1609, puis Thomas Helwys en Angleterre en 1612. Ce mouvement se caractérise par l'importance donnée à la Bible, à la nouvelle naissance, au baptême adulte en tant que témoignage volontaire, un esprit missionnaire, un engagement moral de vie ainsi que par l'autonomie locale des églises, la séparation de l'Église et de l'État, et finalement l'autorité de la congrégation (congrégationalisme). Selon les chiffres du Pew Research Center, en 2011, le mouvement recense 72 millions de croyants.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Buddhism
Boeddhisme
Budismo
Buddhist
佛教
fó jiào
fo jiao
fo chiao
Bouddhisme
"Refers to the philosophy and religion based on the enlightenment and teachings of the Buddha Gautama in the early sixth century BCE in the northeastern region of modern India. Playing dominant roles in the art and culture of Southeast Asia and East Asia, this religion is based on the transcendence of human suffering and pain through the acceptance of the limitations of individuality, the surrender of worldly desires and cravings that cause disappointment and sorrow, and the deliverance from the impermanence of living and individual ego based on wealth, social position, or family through the process of enlightenment (nirvana). The religion also centers around 'anatman', or no-self, the idea that the self is in a state of action or a series of changing manifestations rather than in a state of fixed, metaphysical substance. The structure of the religion is based on the Triratna ("Three Jewels" of Buddha), a tripartite schematic for living based on three elements: Buddha (the teacher), dharma (the teaching), and sangha (community)." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a la filosofía y religión basada en la iluminación y enseñanza del Buddha Gautama en el siglo VI a.C temprano en la región nordeste de la India Moderna. Jugando un rol dominante en el arte y la cultura del Asia Sudeste y Asia Oriental, esta religión está basada en la trascendencia del sufrimiento y dolor humano a través de la aceptación de las limitaciones de individualidad, la rendición de deseos mundanos y anhelos que causan desilusión y aflicción y la liberación desde la transitoriedad of living and individual ego based on wealth, social position, or family through the process of enlightenment (nirvana). The religion also centers around anatman, or no-self, the idea that the self is in a state of action or a series of changing manifestations rather than in a state of fixed, metaphysical substance. The structure of the religion is based on the Triratna ("Three Jewels" of Buddha), a tripartite schematic for living based on three elements: Buddha (the teacher), dharma (the teaching), and sangha (community)." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar de filosofie en religie die zijn gebaseerd op de verlichting en leer van Boeddha Gautama in de vroege 6de eeuw v. Chr. in het Noord-Oosten van het moderne India. Deze religie, die een dominante rol speelt in de kunst en cultuur van Zuidoost-Azië en Oost-Azië, is gebaseerd op het overstijgen van menselijk lijden en pijn door het accepteren van de grenzen van de individualiteit, het opgeven van wereldse verlangens en wensen die voor teleurstellingen en verdriet zorgen en het loslaten van het niet-permanente van het leven en het afzonderlijke ego met de bijbehorende welvaart, sociale positie of familierelaties, allemaal door het proces van de verlichting (nirvana). Bij deze religie staat ook 'anatman' centraal, het idee dat 'het zelf' altijd in ontwikkeling is of deel uitmaakt van een reeks veranderende verschijningsvormen in plaats van een vaste, metafysische substantie. De structuur van de religie is gebaseerd op de Triratna ('drie juwelen' van boeddha), een drieledige structuur voor het leven gebaseerd op drie elementen: boeddha (de leraar), dharma (de leer) en sangha (de gemeenschap)." (Getty, 2017)
"根據釋迦牟尼佛之開悟與教誨的哲學和宗教，在西元前六世紀初起源於現今印度東北部。佛教於東南亞及東亞的藝術與文化層面扮演主要角色，相信透過接受自身的局限，以及放棄會引起失望與悲傷的世俗欲求及渴望，能夠使人類的苦痛得以昇華，而在開悟（涅盤）過程中得以從短暫的生命以及建築在財富、社會地位與家庭上的個人自尊中獲得解脫。此宗教的中心思想為「無我」，認為自我是處於活動狀態或是一連串的形式改變，而非固定的形上實體狀態。佛教的架構奠基於「三寶」，即生命三元素：佛(老師)、法(規範)、僧(眾)。" (Getty, 2017)
«Le bouddhisme est, selon les points de vue en Occident, une religion (notamment une religion d'État) ou une philosophie, voire les deux, dont les origines remontent en Inde au Ve siècleav. J.-C. à la suite de l'éveil de Siddhartha Gautama et de son enseignement. Le bouddhisme comptait en 2005 entre 230 millions et 500 millions d'adeptes, ce qui en fait la quatrième religion mondiale, derrière (dans l'ordre décroissant) le christianisme, l'islam, et l'hindouisme. Le bouddhisme présente un ensemble ramifié de pratiques méditatives, de pratiques éthiques, de théories psychologiques, philosophiques, cosmogoniques et cosmologiques, abordées dans la perspective de la bodhi, «l'éveil». À l'instar du jaïnisme, le bouddhisme est à l'origine une tradition shramana, et non brahmanique comme l'est l'hindouisme. Les notions de dieu et de divinité dans le bouddhisme sont particulières : bien que le bouddhisme soit souvent perçu comme une religion sans dieu créateur, la notion étant absente de la plupart des formes du bouddhisme, la vénération et le culte du Bouddha historique Siddhartha Gautama en tant que bhagavat joue un rôle important dans le Theravāda et également dans le Mahāyāna, dans lesquels il est un être éveillé ayant trois aspects ou manifestations (trikāya).» (DBpedia, 2017)
Roman Catholicism
Rooms-Katholicisme
Katholiek
Katholicisme
Catolicismo Romano
Catolicismo
Catholicisme
Roman Catholic Church
Catholic Church
Catholicism
"Refers to the branch of Christianity characterized by a uniform, highly developed ritual canon and organisational structure with doctrinal roots based in the teachings of the Apostles of Jesus Christ in the first century, in the Alexandrian school of theology, and in Augustinian thought. In this religious branch, faith is considered an acceptance of revelation; revelation appears as doctrine. In juridical terms, it refers to the branch of Christianity distinguished as a unified, monolithic sacramental system under the governance of papal authority. Throughout much of its history, the seat of the Pope has been in Rome, thus "Roman Catholicism" is often used to distinguish this concept from the Orthodox Catholic church." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a la rama del cristianismo caracterizada por un canon ritual uniforme y altamente desarrollado y una estructura organizacional con raíces doctrinales basadas en las enseñanzas de los Apostoles de Jesucristo en la primera centuria, en la Escuela Alejandrina de teología, y en el pensamiento agustiniano. En esta rama de la religión, la fe es considerada como una aceptación de revelación; la revelación aparece como doctrina. Se refiere a la rama del cristianismo caracterizada por un canon ritual uniforme y altamente desarrollado y una estructura organizacional con raíces doctrinales basadas en las enseñanzas de los Apóstoles de Jesucristo en el primer siglo, en la Escuela Alejandrina de teología, y en el pensamiento agustiniano. En esta rama de la religión, la fe es considerada como una aceptación de revelación; la revelación aparece como doctrina. En términos jurídicos, se refiere a la rama del Cristianismo distinguido como sistema sacramental unificado, monolítico bajo gobierno de la autoridad papal. A través de la mayor parte de su historia, "la silla del papal" ha estado en Roma, mediante este concepto el Catolicismo Romano se distingue de la Iglesia Católica Ortodoxa." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar de richting van het christendom die zich kenmerkt door een uniforme, hoogontwikkelde rituele canon en organisatiestructuur met een doctrine die wortelt in de leer van de apostelen van Jezus Christus in de 1ste eeuw, in de theologie van de Alexandrijnse school en in het augustijner gedachtegoed. In deze godsdienstige richting wordt het geloof beschouwd als een aanvaarding van de openbaring; de openbaring heeft de vorm van een doctrine. In juridische zin verwijst de term naar de richting van het christendom die zich onderscheidt als een verenigd, monolithisch sacramenteel systeem onder het bestuur van het pauselijk gezag. Gedurende het grootste deel van de geschiedenis van dit systeem was de paus gevestigd in Rome en daarom wordt 'rooms-katholicisme' vaak gebruikt om dit begrip te onderscheiden van de orthodoxe katholieke kerk." (Getty, 2017)
«L'Église catholique, ou Église catholique, apostolique et romaine, est la plus grande Église chrétienne avec plus d'un milliard de fidèles. Elle réunit l'ensemble des chrétiens en communion avec le pape et les évêques qui sont considérés par les catholiques comme étant les successeurs des apôtres de Jésus-Christ. L'Église catholique est l'une des plus vieilles institutions religieuses au monde et a joué un rôle important dans l'histoire, surtout du monde occidental. La foi de l'Église catholique est résumée par le symbole de Nicée et elle se caractérise par la célébration des sept sacrements dont le plus important est l'Eucharistie célébré liturgiquement durant la messe. Selon son propre catéchisme, l'Église catholique est composée de trois parties qui ne forment qu'une seule Église placée sous Jésus-Christ : l'Église militante, l'Église triomphante et l'Église souffrante correspondant respectivement à l'ensemble des fidèles sur terre, l'ensemble des saints qui sont au ciel et l'ensemble des âmes qui sont au purgatoire. L'Église catholique sur terre se conçoit comme une communion d'Églises locales ou particulières, c'est-à-dire ayant chacune un territoire et un évêque à sa tête. Celles-ci sont chacune pleinement l'Église catholique dans la mesure où elles sont en communion avec le pape, qui est l'évêque de Rome et considéré comme étant le successeur de saint Pierre, et en communion les unes avec les autres. L'Église catholique se définit comme une institution à la fois humaine et divine : «société parfaite en dépit de l'imperfection de ses membres». En plus d'être l'ensemble des baptisés, elle est aussi une institution et un clergé organisés de façon hiérarchique. Une très grande majorité des catholiques (au moins 98 %) sont de l'Église latine, mais il existe aussi des catholiques de différentes Églises catholiques orientales.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Christianity
基督教
jī dū jiāo
ji du jiao
chi tu chiao
Christendom
Christelijk
Cristianismo
Christianisme
Christian
orthodox Christianity
Russian Orthodox
Greek Orthodox
Free Christian Church
"Refers to the world religion and culture that developed in the first century CE, driven by the teachings of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. Its roots are in the Judaic tradition and the Old Testament. The tenets include a belief in the death and redemptive resurrection of Jesus. The religion incorporates a tradition of faith, ritual, and a form of church authority or leadership." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a la religión y cultura que se desarrolló en la primera centuria, guiado por la creencia y reverencia por la vida, enseñanza, muerte y resurrección redentiva de Jesucristo de Nazaret. La religión incorpora una tradición de fe, ritual y una forma de iglesia de autoridad y liderazgo." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar de wereldreligie en -cultuur die in de eerste eeuw n. Chr. tot ontwikkeling kwam op basis van de leer van Jezus Christus van Nazareth. De wortels van deze religie liggen in de joodse traditie en het Oude Testament. Een van de kenmerkende grondbeginselen is het geloof in de dood en wederopstanding van Jezus. De religie omvat een traditie van geloof, rituelen en een vorm van kerkelijke autoriteit of leiderschap." (Getty, 2017)
"發展於西元一世紀的世界宗教與文化，跟隨拿薩勒(Nazareth)耶穌基督的教誨。源於猶太傳統及舊約聖經。教義包括相信耶穌之死與救贖復活。此教融合信仰傳統、儀式，及某種形式的教會權威或領導。" (Getty, 2017)
«Le christianisme est une religion abrahamique fondée sur l'enseignement, la personne et la vie de Jésus de Nazareth tels qu'ils sont interprétés par la tradition chrétienne à partir du Nouveau Testament de la Bible. Il s'agit d'une religion du salut considérant Jésus-Christ comme le Messie annoncé par les prophètes dans l'Ancien Testament qui vient sauver l'humanité du Mal et la faire participer à la vie de Dieu. La foi en la résurrection de Jésus est au cœur du christianisme car elle signifie le début d'une humanité nouvelle libérée du Mal. Les premières communautés chrétiennes naissent au Ier siècle en Judée et dans les grandes villes de la diaspora juive telles que Rome, Éphèse, Antioche et Alexandrie. Le christianisme se développe dès le IIe siècle dans l'Empire romain, dont il devient la religion officielle au IVe siècle, mais aussi en Perse, en Inde et en Éthiopie. Au Moyen-Âge, le christianisme devint majoritaire en Europe, tandis qu'il s'amenuise face à l'islam dans les régions où il est né. Depuis le XVIe siècle, il est devenu la religion la plus importante de la planète par son expansion en Amérique et, plus tard, en Afrique. Il est actuellement présent dans tous les pays du monde. Les Églises chrétiennes sont classiquement regroupées en trois principales branches : le catholicisme, le christianisme orthodoxe et le protestantisme représentant respectivement 50%, 12% et 37% du total des chrétiens en 2010. À la mi-2015, le nombre total de chrétiens dans le monde est évalué à 2,419 milliards, ce qui en fait la religion comptant le plus grand nombre de fidèles au monde devant l'islam qui en compte environ 1,6 milliard.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Christian Science
Christenwetenschap
Ciencia Cristiana
Science Chrétienne
Church of Christ Scientist
Christian Scientist
"Refers to a Christian denomination and movement founded by Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) that seeks to reinstate the Christian message of salvation from all evil, including sickness and disease as well as sin. Eddy, a semi-invalid who was interested in cures not involving medicine, claimed a recovery from a bad injury without medical assistance in 1866. Afterwards, she devoted herself to restoring the healing emphasis of early Christianity. In 1875 she finished writing the first edition of the 'Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures.' This work and the Bible are the principal texts of the movement and importance has been laid on establishing reading rooms where these works can make their own appeal to readers. The 'Christian Science Monitor' is also published by the denomination. Christian Science believes that ignorance is at the root of human unease and thus 'dis-ease.' Instead of seeking medical treatment, special Christian Science healers are to be consulted for spiritual healing. Health, happiness, and holiness can be restored by applying to all aspects of life practices and attitudes in keeping with the principal of divine harmony. The first Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston and its headquarters remain there." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a una secta y movimiento cristiano fundado por Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) que busca reincorporar el mensaje cristiano de salvación de todo mal, incluso la enfermedad y padecimiento así como el pecado. Eddy, un semi-inválido que estaba interesado en curas que no involucraran medicina, afirmó que se había recuperado de una lesión grave sin la ayuda médica en 1866. Después, se consagró a restaurar el énfasis curativo de la primera cristiandad. En 1875 ella terminó escribiendo la primera edición del "la Ciencia y Salud con Llave a las Escrituras". Este trabajo y la Biblia son los textos principales del movimiento y importancia se ha puesto en establecer salas de lectura donde estos trabajos pueden hacer su propia apelación a los lectores. El "Instructivo de ciencia cristiano" también fue publicado por la secta. La Ciencia Cristiana cree que la ignorancia es la raíz de los padecimientos humanos y por lo tanto de la enfermedad. En lugar de buscar tratamiento médico, los sanadores de la Ciencia Cristiana especiales serán consultados para la curación espiritual. La salud, felicidad, y santidad pueden ser restauradas aplicando a todos los aspectos de la vida prácticas y actitudes en concordancia con la armonía divina. La primera Iglesia Científica de Cristo, se fundó en 1879 en Boston y su centro principal permanece allí." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar een christelijke gezindte en beweging die is gesticht door Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) en die streeft naar herbevestiging van de christelijke boodschap van verlossing van al het kwaad, met inbegrip van ziekte en zonde. Eddy, die half invalide was en geïnteresseerd in genezing zonder medicijnen, beweerde dat zij in 1866 zonder medische hulp was hersteld van zwaar letsel. Daarna wijdde zij zich aan het herstel van de nadruk op gebedsgenezing die het vroege christendom had gekenmerkt. In 1875 voltooide zij de eerste editie van haar boek 'Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures'. Dit werk en de Bijbel zijn de voornaamste geschriften van de beweging, die veel belang hecht aan de inrichting van leesruimten waar deze boeken een eigen beroep op de lezers kunnen doen. Ook de 'Christian Science Monitor' wordt door het kerkgenootschap uitgegeven. Volgens de leer van Christian Science is onwetendheid de wortel van het menselijk ongemak, de menselijke ziekte. In plaats van medische behandeling te zoeken moet men gebedsgenezers van Christian Science raadplegen voor spirituele genezing. Gezondheid, geluk en heiligheid kunnen worden hersteld door alle aspecten van de levenspraktijk en -houding aan te spreken in overeenstemming met het beginsel van goddelijke harmonie. De eerste Church of Christ, Scientist werd in 1879 in Boston gesticht en het hoofdkwartier van de beweging is daar nog altijd gevestigd." (Getty, 2017)
«La Science chrétienne (ou Christian Science en anglais) se définit elle-même comme la «Science du Christ». Sa fondatrice, la théologienne américaine Mary Baker Eddy, estime avoir redécouvert en 1866 les lois appliquées par Jésus dans la guérison des malades et la résolution des aléas de la vie, lois toujours démontrables aujourd'hui. Son observation des guérisons et résolutions diverses obtenues sur la base de sa théorie en prouve, selon elle, la validité. Ainsi, la Science chrétienne est «chrétienne» en ce sens qu'elle repose sur les enseignements de Jésus de Nazareth, tels qu'exposés dans le Nouveau Testament. La Science chrétienne se veut une religion pratique permettant l'application de lois divines démontrables. Afin d'assurer la diffusion de cette science, Mary Baker Eddy fonde en 1879 une Église sans credo, appelée «Église du Christ, Scientiste» (en anglais The First Church of Christ, Scientist), rassemblant de nos jours 1 800 églises dans 82 pays et quelques centaines de milliers de pratiquants, principalement aux États-Unis. Reconnue comme association cultuelle dans de nombreux pays, notamment aux États-Unis, la Science chrétienne précise que, malgré la confusion possible entre les deux noms, elle n'a rien de commun avec l'Église de Scientologie; de plus, bien qu'elle partage nombre de concepts métaphysiques avec les églises de la Nouvelle Pensée comme Unité, la Science divine et la Science religieuse, ce qui amène certains historiens et sociologues à les aborder ensemble dans leurs travaux, la Science chrétienne et ces églises ne se reconnaissent pas mutuellement comme faisant partie de la même mouvance. La principale critique de la Science chrétienne est qu'elle a un caractère alternatif et non complémentaire au traitement médical. Ainsi, les guérisons alléguées sont obtenues en dehors de tout contrôle médical. Ses guérisons de maladies fonctionnelles ou organiques sont considérées comme relevant de l'effet placebo par les détracteurs de la Science chrétienne (ce qui n'est d'ailleurs pas tellement en contradiction avec la Science chrétienne, qui ne considère la maladie que comme le résultat de simples croyances erronées, qu'il faudrait donc corriger pour recouvrer la santé.). La principale défense de la Science chrétienne est que chacun est libre de choisir la méthode de guérison qu'il juge la plus efficace et qu'il n'existe aucune contrainte à ce sujet. Les sympathisants mettent en avant les guérisons qu'ils disent avoir obtenues et réfutent toute idée de rejet de la médecine conventionnelle.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Dissent (Protestant)
dissidents (ou non-conformistes)
Dissenter
Nonconformist
Rational Dissent
Dissenting Churches
Dissenting Presbyterian
"In English church history, a nonconformist was a Protestant who did not "conform" to the governance and usages of the established Church of England. Broad use of the term was precipitated after the Restoration of the British monarchy in 1660, when the Act of Uniformity 1662 re-established the opponents of reform within the Church of England. By the late 19th-century the term specifically included the Reformed Christians (Presbyterians, Congregationalists and other Calvinist sects), plus the Baptists and Methodists. The English Dissenters such as the Puritans who violated the Act of Uniformity 1559 — typically by practising radical, sometimes separatist, dissent — were retrospectively labelled as nonconformists." (DBpedia, 2017) Dissenting Protestantism and nonconformism are historical phenomena that become less relevant in the United Kingdom from the early twentieth century onwards, and many groups such as Baptists and Presbyterians have significant followings in other parts of the world.
«Les non-conformistes, appelés aussi Dissidents (dissenters), étaient ceux qui, en Angleterre, refusaient de suivre la doctrine de l'Église anglicane. Il s'agissait notamment des Puritains, des Presbytériens, des Anabaptistes ou des Calvinistes. On oppose les non-conformistes aux Conformistes.» (DBpedia, 2017)
"English Dissenters were Christians who separated from the Church of England in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. A dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, "to disagree") is one who disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, etc. English Dissenters opposed state interference in religious matters, and founded their own churches, educational establishments, and communities; some emigrated to the New World. They originally agitated for a wide-reaching Protestant Reformation of the Established Church, and triumphed briefly under Oliver Cromwell." (DBpedia, 2017) See also: Nonconformist - Wikipedia
«Les Dissidents anglais (en anglais : English Dissenters ou nonconformists) sont des protestants anglais qui firent sécession de l'Église d'Angleterre. Ils s'opposaient à l'interférence de l'État dans les affaires religieuses et fondèrent leurs propres communautés du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle. Les Dissidents triomphèrent un temps lors du gouvernement d'Oliver Cromwell, mais après la Restauration de la monarchie, en 1660, l'épiscopat fut rétabli et les droits civiques des Dissidents limités, dès les années 1660, par une série de lois dont l'Act of Uniformity, le Corporation Act et le Test Act. Ce n'est qu'en 1828 que ces lois discriminatoires sont abrogées. Parmi les Dissidents les plus connus, on peut citer le fondateur de la secte des Puritains Henry Jacob (en) (1563-1624), l'éditeur Joseph Johnson (1738-1809), la mystique Jane Leade (1623-1704), le philosophe Richard Price (1723-1791), ou encore le chimiste et théologien Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), ainsi que le fondateur d'une académie dissidente à Kendal (Cumbria), le révérend Caleb Rotherham, qui instruisit l'un des pères de la Révolution industrielle, le fondeur et beau-frère de Joseph Priestley, John Wilkinson.» (DBpedia, 2017)Voir aussi: Non-conformistes — Wikipédia
Hinduism
Hinduismo
Hindou
hindouisme
Hindoeïsme
印度教
yìn dù jiào
yin du jiao
yin tu chiao
Hindoos
"General term for the set of intellectual and philosophical tenets and highly diverse beliefs and practices that define the civilization, art, literature, society, and politics of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is not a common set of rigid beliefs, but varies significantly between different regions; it includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Srauta, and numerous other traditions. Among other practices and philosophies, Hinduism includes a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. The highest divine powers are seen as complementary to one another and not exclusive. Hinduism does not have a particular founder or central authority. Hindu literature is rich and varied, with no one text considered uniquely authoritative. The Vedas, dating to the Vedic period (ca. 1200-500 BCE), are the earliest extant writings. Religious law books and epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have been and continue to be highly influential." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere al conjunto de creencias y prácticas altamente diversas que generalmente denotan la civilización y cultura India de los dos mil últimos años. La religión influye fuertemente en el arte, la literatura, la política y al sociedad hinduista. Presenta la creencia y la práctica de ritos mágicos, cultos animales, creencia en demonios, cultos a deidades, incluyendo dioses locales y dioses centrales, misticismo, ascetismo y una apreciación y respeto por otras formas de cultos o creencias religiosas. La verdad de la religión no esta concebida como un término dogmático, sino que la verdad supera toda definición verbal. En vez de un sistema de doctrinas, el énfasis se pone en la manera correcta de vivir (dharma). Hay variaciones significativas entre diversas regiones. La mayoría de las formas de hinduismo enfatizan el concepto del reencarnación o de la transmigración; la liberación (moksha) desde el ciclo del samsara es la última meta espiritual del hindú. Brahma, Vishnu y Shiva son las deidades hindúes principales, juntos forman la tríada, el Trimurti. Existen muchos otros deidades de menor rango. El Hinduismo no tiene un fundador en particular o un iniciado, allí no hay una autoridad central. La literatura hindú es rica y variada, sin un texto considerado únicamente autoritario. El Vedas, fechando en el período de Vedic (ca. 1200-500 a. C), es la escritura más temprana existente. Los libros de ley y las epopeyas religiosas tales como el Ramayana y el Mahabharata han sido y continúan siendo altamente influyentes." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar de reeks uiterst diverse geloven en gebruiken die in het algemeen verwijzen naar de Indiase beschaving en cultuur van de afgelopen tweeduizend jaar. De religie heeft een sterke invloed op de Indiase kunst, literatuur, maatschappij en politiek. Het hindoeïsme omvat diverse religieuze geloven en gebruiken en in plaats van andere goden, andere godsdiensten en andere religieuze concepten als fout of onverenigbaar te zien, worden de hoogste goddelijke machten gezien als elkaar aanvullend. De religieuze waarheid wordt niet gezien in dogmatische termen aangezien wordt geloofd dat de waarheid alle woordelijke definities overstijgt. In plaats van op een reeks doctrines ligt de nadruk op de juiste manier van leven (dharma). Er zijn aanzienlijke verschillen per regio. In de meeste vormen van het hindoeïsme ligt de nadruk op het concept van reïncarnatie of zielsverhuizing; de bevrijding (moksha) van de cyclus van samsara is het uiteindelijke spirituele doel van hindoes. Brahma, Visjnoe en Shiva zijn de belangrijkste hindoeïstische godheden en vormen gezamenlijk een drie-eenheid, de Trimurti. Verder is er een groot aantal lagere goden. Het hindoeïsme heeft geen specifieke oprichter of ontstaansmoment en er is geen centrale autoriteit. De hindoeïstische literatuur is erg rijk en gevarieerd en geen enkele specifieke tekst wordt als gezaghebbend beschouwd. De Veda's, die afkomstig zijn uit de Vedische periode (ca. 1200-500 v. Chr.), zijn de oudste overgebleven geschriften. Religieuze wetboeken en heldendichten zoals de Ramayana en de Mahabharata zijn altijd erg invloedrijk geweest." (Getty, 2017)
"代表過去兩千年來印度文明與文化的一套極多樣的信仰與實踐方式。此宗教對印度藝術、文學、社會與政治有極大影響。印度教包含多元的宗教信仰及實踐方式，因此不會認為其他的神明、其他形式的敬拜及宗教觀是錯誤或者互不相容，反而認為最高的神力是彼此互補的。他們相信真理超越所有言語定義，因此不應武斷認定何謂宗教真理。重視生活的正確方式(法)，而非一連串的教條。不同宗教之間差異甚鉅。大部分的印度教形式強調輪迴觀念；從生死疾苦等輪迴中解脫是印度教徒最終的心靈目標。婆羅摩、毗濕奴、濕婆是印度教主要的三個神明(三相神) 。還有很多其他小神。印度教沒有確切的建立者及開始時間，也沒有中央權威。印度教文學豐富且多樣，但沒有哪一部作品被認為是權威。追溯自吠陀時期(西元前500年到西元1200年)的吠陀經是現存最早的經典。宗教法律典籍及史詩如《羅摩耶那史詩》及《摩訶婆羅達》仍舊極具影響力。" (Getty, 2017)
«L'hindouisme (hindi : hindu dharm ; devanāgarī : हिन्दू धर्म ; «religion hindoue»), ou Sanatana Dharma (sanskrit IAST : sanātanadharma ; devanāgarī : सनातनधर्म ; «Loi Éternelle»), est l'une des plus vieilles religions du monde encore pratiquées, qui n'a ni fondateur ni Église. Avec près d'un milliard de fidèles dans 84 pays, c'est actuellement la troisième religion la plus pratiquée dans le monde après le christianisme et l'islam. Elle est issue du sous-continent indien qui reste son principal foyer de peuplement. La particularité de l'hindouisme est de n'avoir ni prophètes ni dogmes centraux. Cependant, les hindous contemporains croient en l'autorité du Veda, qui, selon la tradition, fut révélé aux hommes, grâce à la «vision» des Rishi. Le terme persan hindu (du sanskrit Sindhu) désignait au départ, pour les musulmans qui pénétrèrent en Inde, les habitants du bassin de l'Indus. L'hindouisme se présente comme un ensemble de concepts philosophiques issus d'une tradition remontant à la protohistoire indienne, la pratique hindouiste étant sans doute issue d'une tradition orale très ancienne, proche de l'animisme. On retient parfois une tripartition historique qui fait de l'hindouisme la dernière phase du développement des religions en Inde, après le védisme aryen (~1500 à 900 av. J.-C.) et le brahmanisme (~900 à 400 av. J.-C.). Au-delà du syncrétisme théologique, l'hindouisme d'avant les invasions islamiques et le colonialisme européen qui soumirent l'Inde à leur autorité était un vecteur pour toutes les sciences : le droit, la politique, l'architecture, l'astronomie, la philosophie, la médecine, etc., comme d'autres savoirs qui avaient en commun le substrat religieux.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Islamism
Islam
Islamismo
islam
伊斯蘭教
回教
yī sī lán jiāo
yi si lan jiao
i ssu lan chiao
Islamic
Mahometans
Muslim
"Refers to the religious beliefs and social practices founded in the seventh century by the Arabian Prophet Muhammad, held to be the last of a series of major prophets, which include, according to Islamic dogma, Adam, Noah, and Jesus. It later spread throughout the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia. It is characterized by the belief in the fundamental idea that a devotee 'surrenders' and submits his will to Allah, the prime creator and sustainer of the universe and all creation. In Islam, God is unique and has no partner or intermediary as in the Christian Trinity. Social service and the active alleviation of suffering in others is considered the only path to salvation and prayer and sacred ritual alone are inadequate forms of submission to Allah. The Qur'an (Koran), the sacred text of the religion, is a compilation of revelations from Allah believed to have been received by Muhammad." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a creencias religiosas y prácticas sociales fundadas en el siglo VII por el Profeta árabe Mahoma, supuestamente el último de una serie de grandes profetas, incluídos, de acuerdo al dogma Islámico, Adán, Noé y Jesús. Posteriormente se difundió a través del Medio Oriente, África, Europa y parte de Asia. Se caracteriza por la creencia en la idea fundamental que un devoto se "rinde" y somete la voluntad de Alá, el principal creador y mantenedor del universo y toda creación. En el Islam, Dios es único y no tiene parentesco o intermediario como la trinidad cristiana. El servicio social y las actividades que alivian el sufrimiento de otros es considerado el único camino a la salvación y la oración y ritual sagrado a solas es una inadecuado forma de sumisión para Alá. El Coran (Koran), consagrado el texto de las religiones, es una compilación relevante de las creencias de Alá que fueron recibidas de Mahoma." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar het samenstel van religieuze overtuigingen en sociale gebruiken dat in de 7de eeuw is ontstaan op basis van de leer van de Arabische profeet Mohammed, die wordt beschouwd als de laatste in een reeks van grote profeten; volgens de islamitische leer zijn dit onder anderen Adam, Noach en Jezus. De islam heeft zich later verspreid in het Midden-Oosten, Afrika, Europa en delen van Azië. De islam wordt gekenmerkt door het geloof in het fundamentele idee dat een gelovige zich 'overgeeft' en zich onderwerpt aan Allah, de schepper van het universum en de schepping als geheel. God is uniek en heeft geen partner of tussenpersoon zoals bij de christelijke drie-eenheid. Maatschappelijke dienstbaarheid en het actief verlichten van het lijden van anderen wordt beschouwd als de enige weg naar verlossing en gebeden en heilige rituelen zijn op zichzelf onvoldoende vormen van overgave aan Allah. De Qur'an (Koran), het heilige geschrift van de religie, is een verzameling onthullingen die, zo gelooft men, door Allah aan Mohammed zijn geopenbaard." (Getty, 2017)
"由阿拉伯先知穆罕默德於七世紀創建的宗教信仰與社會實踐方式。根據伊斯蘭教條，穆罕默德是繼亞當、挪亞、耶穌後最後一個主要的先知。此教之後廣傳中東、非洲、歐洲、及部份亞洲。基本思想為信徒交出自己的意志給阿拉(宇宙及所有創造物的最高造物者與支撐者)。就伊斯蘭教而言，神是獨一無二的，且并非如基督教三位一體的觀點般有夥伴或是媒介。社會服務及積極幫助受苦者被認為是通往救贖的唯一路徑，若只有祈禱及神聖儀式則不算完全奉獻予阿拉。可蘭經是此教的聖典，記載穆罕默德從阿拉得來的神示。" (Getty, 2017)
«L'islam (arabe : الإسلام) est une religion abrahamique s'appuyant sur le dogme du monothéisme absolu (l'adoration du Dieu unique sans lui attribuer aucun associé) et prenant sa source dans le Coran, considéré comme le recueil de la parole de Dieu (arabe : الله, Allah) révélée à Mahomet, proclamé par les adhérents de l'islam comme étant le dernier prophète de Dieu, au VIIe siècle en Arabie. Un adepte de l'islam est appelé un musulman. L'islam revendique pour fondement et enseignement principal le tawhid (monothéisme, unicité et indivisibilité), c'est-à-dire le monothéisme le plus épuré où le culte est voué exclusivement à Dieu, sans lui attribuer aucun fils. Les musulmans croient que Dieu est un et incomparable et que le but de l'existence est d'adorer Dieu. Les musulmans croient également que l'islam est la version complète et universelle d'une foi primordiale qui a été révélée à plusieurs reprises par le passé à travers les prophètes, incluant Adam, Noé, Abraham, Moïse et Jésus. Ainsi, elle se présente comme un retour sur les pas d'Abraham (appelé, en arabe, Ibrahim par les musulmans) du point de vue de la croyance, le Coran le définissant comme étant l'étalon-pied, la lieue de la Kaaba, le mille d'Abraham (milla ta Ibrahim), c'est-à-dire une soumission exclusive à la volonté d'Allah. Le Coran reconnaît l'origine divine de l'ensemble des livres sacrés du judaïsme et du christianisme, tout en estimant qu'ils seraient, dans leurs interprétations actuelles, le résultat d'une falsification partielle : le Suhuf-i-Ibrahim (les Feuillets d'Abraham), la Tawrat (le Pentateuque ou la Torah), le Zabur de David et Salomon (identifié au Livre des Psaumes) et l'Injil (l'Évangile). Outre le Coran, la majorité des musulmans se réfèrent à des transmissions de paroles, actes et approbations de Mahomet, récits appelés hadîths, pour l'établissement de règles juridiques (fiqh) permettant la compréhension et l'accomplissement des adorations du musulman au quotidien. Les différentes branches de l'islam ne s'accordent pas sur les compilations de hadiths à retenir comme authentiques. Le Coran et les hadiths dits «recevables» sont deux des quatre sources de la loi islamique, la charia, les deux autres étant l'unanimité (ijma') et l'analogie (qiyas). En 2010, le nombre de musulmans dans le monde est estimé à 1,6 milliard, soit 23,4 % de la population mondiale, ce qui fait de l'islam la deuxième religion du monde après le christianisme et devant l'hindouisme. C'est, chronologiquement parlant, le troisième grand courant monothéiste de la famille des religions abrahamiques, après le judaïsme et le christianisme avec lesquels il possède un certain nombre d'éléments communs. L'islam se répartit en différents courants, dont les principaux sont le sunnisme, qui représente entre 80 et 85 % des musulmans, et le chiisme, rencontré principalement en Irak et en Iran.» (DBpedia, 2017)
猶太教
yóu tài jiāo
you tai jiao
yu t'ai chiao
Jodendom
Joods
Judaísmo
Judaïsme
Orthodox Judaism
"Refers to the monotheistic religion of the Jewish people, central to which is the belief that the ancient Israelites experienced God's presence in human events. Jews believe that the one God delivered the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt, revealed the structure of communal and individual life to them, and chose them to be a holy nation of people able to set an example for all humankind. The Hebrew Bible and Talmud are the two primary sources for Judaism's spiritual and ethical principles. The religion, which traces its origins to Abraham, places more emphasis on expressing beliefs through ritual rather than through abstract doctrine. The Sabbath, beginning on sunset on Friday and ending at sunset on Saturday, is the central religious observance; there is also an annual cycle of religious festivals and days of fasting. Judaism has had a diverse history of development over almost 4000 years, with a number of resulting branches in modern times, namely Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform." (Getty, 2017)
"Se refiere a la religión monoteista del pueblo judío, para los cuales es central la creencia que los antiguos israelitas experimentaron la presencia de Dios en los eventos humanos. Los judíos creen que el Dios único salvó los israelistas de la esclavitud en Egipto, revelándoles la estructura de la vida comunal e individual y eligiéndolos para ser una nación sagrada de personas capaces de dar un ejemplo para toda la humanidad. La Biblia Hebrea y el Talmud son dos fuentes primarias de la espiritualidad judía y de los principios éticos.Los orígenes de la religión se remontan a los tiempos de Abraham, poniendo mayor énfasis en expresar la creencia con rituales más bien que con doctrinas abstractas. El Shabbat, que comienza con la puesta de sol del viernes y termina con la puesta de sol del sábado, es la observancia religiosa central; hay también un ciclo anual de fiestas religiosas y días de ayuno. El judaísmo ha tenido un desarrollo diverso a lo largo de la historia de casi 4.000 años, con un gran número de ramas resultantes en épocas modernas, concretamente ortodoxas, conservadoras, y reformistas." (Getty, 2017)
"Verwijst naar de monotheïstische religie van het joodse volk, waarbij het geloof centraal staat dat de oude Israëlieten de aanwezigheid van God ervoeren in menselijke gebeurtenissen. Joden geloven dat één God de Israëlieten uit hun gevangenschap in Egypte heeft bevrijd, de structuur van een gemeenschappelijk en individueel leven aan hen heeft onthuld en hen heeft uitverkoren als een heilig volk dat als voorbeeld moest dienen voor de gehele mensheid. De Hebreeuwse bijbel en de Talmoed zijn de belangrijkste bronnen voor de spirituele en ethische principes van het jodendom. Deze religie, waarvan de oorsprong teruggaat naar de tijd van Abraham, legt meer de nadruk op het tot uitdrukking brengen van het geloof in de vorm van rituelen dan in de vorm van abstracte doctrines. De sabbat, die begint bij zonsondergang op vrijdag en eindigt bij zonsondergang op zaterdag, is een centraal element van de religie; er is ook een jaarlijkse cyclus van religieuze feestdagen en vastendagen. Het jodendom heeft een zeer uiteenlopende ontwikkelingsgeschiedenis die bijna 4000 jaar beslaat en is uitgemond in diverse stromingen: de orthodoxe, conservatieve en reformistische stroming." (Getty, 2017)
"猶太人的一神論宗教，相信古代以色列人於人類事件中體驗到神的存在。猶太人相信這唯一的神使他們脫離埃及的奴役，向他們揭示公共及個人生活的結構，並選擇他們為聖國子民，以為全人類樹立榜樣。《希伯來聖經(Hebrew Bible)》與《塔爾穆德(Talmud)》為猶太教精神與道德原則的兩大來源。猶太教源於亞伯拉罕，較強調以儀式而非抽象的教條表達信仰。遵循信仰的重心為安息日，從週五的日落開始到週日的日出結束；另外每年還有宗教節慶和齋戒日。猶太教經過將近四千年的發展，衍生出許多現代的分支，即正統派猶太教(Orthodox)、保守派猶太教(Conservative)，與改革派猶太教(Reform.)。" (Getty, 2017)
«Pour l'Encyclopædia Britannica, le mot judaïsme recouvre la religion des Juifs, ainsi que la théologie, la loi et les traditions culturelles du peuple juif, constitué des descendants des Israélites provenant de l'antique terre d'Israël et des quelques minorités les ayant rejoints par la conversion et s'étant mélangées à eux au fil de leur diaspora de deux millénaires. Pour un juif orthodoxe comme Daniel Boyarin, le judaïsme est «l'ensemble des rituels et des autres pratiques, des croyances et des valeurs, des loyautés historiques et politiques qui constituent l'allégeance au peuple d'Israël», mais le judaïsme n'est ni une religion ni une foi, selon Boyarin. Ainsi Bernard-Henri Lévy affirme que «la tâche des Juifs comme tels est d'être irréligieux», dans la mesure où la religion, telle qu'on la conçoit en théologie, édifiée par une croyance, par des dogmes, par une instance suprême, centrale et doctrinale, n'appartient pas à l'esprit du judaïsme, selon lui. Le judaïsme comporte des éléments religieux, mais ne s'y limite pas puisqu'il contient des coutumes non spécifiquement religieuses – outre des codes de conduite, des lois, des rites – et qu'il fonde plus largement encore une «culture juive». Néanmoins, par convention, on parle habituellement du judaïsme comme d'une «religion», mais il ne faut pas l'entendre au sens strict, selon des historiens des religions comme Simon Claude Mimouni ou Daniel Boyarin, ou des philosophes comme Léo Strauss ou Bernard-Henri Lévy. Selon ses textes fondateurs, en particulier le Tanakh, la foi des anciens Israélites et de leurs descendants les Juifs, est fondée sur une alliance contractée entre Dieu et Abraham, qui a ensuite été renouvelée entre Dieu et Moïse. Les juifs fondent le judaïsme sur la religion abrahamique qui fleurira ensuite dans la Loi mosaïque (la Torah, les Nevi'im et les Ketouvim), collectivement désignés par l'acronyme Tanakh, dont le texte constitue la Miqra ou Bible hébraïque. Cette religion se fonde sur le culte du Dieu d'Abraham, d'Isaac et de Jacob, au Nom ineffable, qu'elle conçoit comme une Essence éternelle (YHWH), qui détient tous les pouvoirs (Elohim), transcendant le Seigneur des Seigneurs (Adonaï) qu'elle considère Un et Unique et qu'elle qualifie ainsi : omnipotent, omniscient, omniprésent, juste et miséricordieux. Cette religion professe aussi que le rassemblement de toutes les puissances (Elohim) manifesta le créateur du monde qui continue de s'impliquer dans sa destinée en faisant irruption dans l'Histoire dont il révèle la dimension d'Histoire Sainte, comme lorsqu'il fit sortir d'Égypte les enfants d'Israël. Les cohanim, ou prêtres, du Temple de Jérusalem, par deux fois détruit, assuraient son culte. Certains groupes juifs, comme les Ésséniens, s'opposaient à la centralité du culte à Jérusalem. La seconde destruction du Temple de Jérusalem et la dispersion des juifs dans le monde donna naissance à plusieurs traditions religieuses juives. Si la majorité des juifs se regroupèrent autour de l'élaboration du Talmud par les rabbanim, un mouvement strictement scripturaliste, dit Karaïsme, s'opposa à la codification de la tradition orale, tandis que d'autres groupes éloignés, comme les Beta d'Israël en Éthiopie, ignorèrent cette évolution et se développèrent en vase clos. Le judaïsme est l'une des plus anciennes traditions religieuses du monothéisme exclusif encore pratiquées aujourd'hui. Les valeurs et l'histoire du peuple juif sont à la source des deux autres religions abrahamiques, le christianisme et l'islam. Il n'est toutefois pas à la base du samaritanisme, qui est une tradition israélite très tôt distincte du judaïsme de Jérusalem, ni du zoroastrisme, lui-même issu du mazdéisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Presbyterianism
長老宗
長老制
長老教會
zhǎng lǎo zōng
zhang lao zong
chang lao tsung
Presbyterianisme
Prebyteriaan
Presbiterianismo
Presbytarianisme
Presbyterian Church
Free Church of Scotland
"One of the main Protestant groups that arose out of the 16th-century Reformation. Generally speaking, modern Presbyterian churches trace their origins to the Calvinist churches of the British Isles, the European counterparts of which came to be known by the more inclusive name of Reformed. The term presbyterian also denotes a collegiate type of church government led by pastors and lay leaders called elders or presbyters. Strictly speaking, all Presbyterian churches are a part of the Reformed, or Calvinist, tradition, although not all Reformed churches are presbyterian in their form of government." (Getty, 2017)
"Een van de belangrijkste protestantse groeperingen die voortkwamen uit de 16de-eeuwse Reformatie. In het algemeen hebben moderne presbyteriaanse kerken hun oorsprong in de calvinistische kerken op de Britse eilanden, waarvan de Europese tegenhangers bekend zijn geworden onder de meer algemene naam 'gereformeerden'. De term 'presbyteriaans' verwijst ook naar een collegiaal type kerkbestuur onder leiding van pastors en leken die ouderlingen of presbyters worden genoemd. Strikt genomen maken alle presbyteriaanse kerken deel uit van de gereformeerde of calvinistische traditie, maar zijn niet alle gereformeerde kerken presbyteriaans in hun bestuursvorm." (Getty, 2017)
"Uno de los principales grupos protestantes que surgió de la Reforma del siglo XVI. Hablando en general, las Iglesias Presbiterianas modernas señalan sus orígenes en las iglesias calvinistas de las Islas Británicas, la contraparte Europea la que fue conocida por el nombre más global de "Reformada". El término presbiterianismo también denota un tipo colegiado de gobierno de iglesia liderado por el pastor y lideres laicos llamados ancianos o presbiteros. Estrictamente hablando, todas las iglesias presbiterianas son parte de la Iglesia .El término presbiterianismo también denota un tipo colegiado de gobierno de iglesia liderado por el pastor y lideres laicos llamados ancianos o presbiteros. Estrictamente hablando, todas las iglesias presbiterianas son parte de la Reforma o Calvinismo, tradición, aunque no todas las iglesias Reformadas son presbiterianas en su gubernamentalidad." (Getty, 2017)
"自十六世紀宗教改革興起的主要新教團體的一派。一般說來，現代的長老教會可追溯至不列顛群島的喀爾文(Calvinis)教派，其在歐洲的對應教派則被稱為較具涵蓋性的歸正派(Reformed)。長老教會一詞，亦表示其管理方式如同大學，由稱作長老或教士的牧師及信徒領導。嚴格來說，所有長老教會皆為歸正派或喀爾文教派傳統的一部分，但並非所有歸正教會的管理方式皆如同長老教會一般。" (Getty, 2017)
«Le presbytérianisme est une forme du protestantisme liée à l'Écosse.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Protestantism
新教
抗羅宗
xīn jiāo
xin jiao
hsin chiao
protestantisme
protestant
protestantismo
provincial English Protestantism
Labadists
"The general term for types of Christian faith originating from the Reformation. Although the early forms of Protestantism were those who followed Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli, the term now includes most non-Roman Catholic or non-Orthodox denominations. Protestants want to be closer to the style of faith of the early Church which they feel has been obscured in Catholic practices. The term derives from the word 'protestari' which means not only to protest but to avow or confess. Common characteristics of Protestantism include the justification by faith alone, the authority of scripture, and the priesthood of all believers, in which not only the clergy are able to hear the confession of sin." (Getty, 2017)
"El término general para tipos de fe cristiana originadas a partir de la Reforma. Aunque las formas tempranas del protestantismo fueron aquellas que obedecían a Lutero, Calvino y Zwinglio, el término ahora incluye la mayoría de las denominaciones no Romanas o no Ortodoxas. El caracter común de los protestantes incluye la justificación de la fe por la fe, la autoridad de la sagrada escritura y el sacerdocio de todos los fieles, por el que cada creyente puede oir la confesión de los pecados, no siendo exclusivo del clero. protestantes quieren estar cerca al estilo de fe de la primera Iglesia el cual sienten ha sido opacado en las prácticas católicas. El término deriva desde la palabra "protestari" que significa no sólo protestar sino que reconocer o confesar. Característica común." (Getty, 2017)
"De algemene term voor typen christelijk geloof die zijn ontstaan tijdens de Reformatie. Hoewel de vroegste vormen van protestantisme werden beoefend door de volgelingen van Luther, Calvijn en Zwingli, wordt de term tegenwoordig gebruikt voor de meeste overtuigingen die niet rooms-katholiek of orthodox zijn. Protestanten willen dichter bij de geloofsstijl van de vroege kerk staan, die volgens hen in de katholieke praktijk overschaduwd is geraakt. De term is afkomstig van het woord 'protestari', wat niet alleen 'protesteren' betekent, maar ook 'belijden'. Enkele algemene kenmerken van het protestantisme zijn: rechtvaardiging door het geloof alleen, de berusting van alle gezag bij de Bijbel en de leer dat alle gelovigen zelf hun zonden aan God kunnen belijden, waarbij het aanhoren van de biecht niet alleen aan priesters is voorbehouden." (Getty, 2017)
"泛稱源自宗教改革的各式基督信仰。雖然早期的新教形式是指遵循路德(Luther)、喀爾文(Calvin)，以及茨溫利(Zwingli)的派別，但現在新教這個詞彙包含了大部分非羅馬天主教或非正教的派別。新教徒希望能更接近早期教會信仰，認為天主教將之變得晦澀難解。本詞彙衍生自"protestari"，不僅意指抗議，更要坦白或懺悔。新教的常見特色包括因純信而稱義、經典的權威性、信徒皆牧師，所以不是只有牧師才能聽取認罪懺悔。" (Getty, 2017)
«Le protestantisme est l'une des principales branches du christianisme avec le catholicisme et l'orthodoxie. Entendu largement, le protestantisme est l'ensemble des groupements «issus, directement ou non, de la Réforme et qui rejettent l'autorité du pape». Selon cette perspective, le protestantisme englobe des mouvements variés allant des luthériens passant par les évangéliques, jusqu'aux quakers.» (DBpedia, 2017)
agnosticism
agnosticisme
"Agnosticism is the view that the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable. According to the philosopher William L. Rowe: "In the popular sense of the term, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God." Agnosticism is a doctrine or set of tenets rather than a religion as such. Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. Earlier thinkers, however, had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthaputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife; and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about "the gods". The Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda is agnostic about the origin of the universe." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'agnosticisme ou pensée de l'interrogation est une attitude de pensée considérant la vérité de certaines propositions concernant notamment l'existence de Dieu ou des dieux comme inconnaissable : à la différence des croyants, considérant probable ou certaine l'existence de telles divinités, ou des athées l'estimant improbable ou impossible, les agnostiques refusent de trancher. Si le degré de scepticisme varie selon les individus, les agnostiques s'accordent pour dire qu'il n'existe pas de preuve définitive en faveur de l'existence ou de l'inexistence du divin, et affirment l'impossibilité de se prononcer. Si les agnostiques refusent de se prononcer quant à l'existence d'une intelligence supérieure, ils n'accordent, en revanche, ou du moins tendent à n'accorder, aucune transcendance et aucune valeur sacrée aux religions (prophète, messie, textes sacrés...) et à leurs institutions (clergé, rituels et prescriptions diverses...). Ceux-ci voient en effet les religions comme de pures constructions sociales et culturelles qui auraient surtout pour fonction historique d'assurer la cohésion et l'ordre dans les sociétés humaines traditionnelles via par exemple la menace de l'enfer, la promesse du paradis ou encore la notion de péché ou par le mécanisme du bouc émissaire. En d'autres termes, les religions, aux yeux d'un agnostique, seraient bien trop «humaines» de par leurs modes de fonctionnement et de par les dynamiques anthropologiques sur lesquelles elles se basent (soutien psychologique face à la mort, analogie très anthropocentrique d'un Dieu bâtisseur de l'univers...) pour qu'elles aient un quelconque lien direct avec toute forme d'intelligence supérieure, tout en n'excluant pas non plus pour certains le fait que ce soit malgré tout possible. D'où cette interrogation constante propre à l'agnostique.» (DBpedia, 2017)
atheism
athéisme
"Atheism is, in a broad sense, the rejection of belief in the existence of deities. In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Most inclusively, atheism is the absence of belief that any deities exist. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which, in its most general form, is the belief that at least one deity exists. The term "atheism" originated from the Greek ἄθεος (atheos), meaning "without god(s)", used as a pejorative term applied to those thought to reject the gods worshiped by the larger society. With the spread of freethought, skeptical inquiry, and subsequent increase in criticism of religion, application of the term narrowed in scope. The first individuals to identify themselves using the word "atheist" lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. The French Revolution, noted for its "unprecedented atheism," witnessed the first major political movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason. Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches. Rationales for not believing in deities include arguments that there is a lack of empirical evidence; the problem of evil; the argument from inconsistent revelations; the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified; and the argument from nonbelief. Although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies (eg. humanism and skepticism), there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere. Many atheists hold that atheism is a more parsimonious worldview than theism and therefore that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of God but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism. Since conceptions of atheism vary, accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult. Several comprehensive global polls on the subject have been conducted by Gallup International: their 2015 poll featured over 64,000 respondents and indicated that 11% were "convinced atheists" whereas an earlier 2012 poll found that 13% of respondents were "convinced atheists." An older survey by the BBC, in 2004, recorded atheists as comprising 8% of the world's population. Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2% of the world's population, while the irreligious add a further 12%. According to these polls, Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism. In 2015, 61% of people in China reported that they were atheists. The figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union (EU) reported that 20% of the EU population claimed not to believe in "any sort of spirit, God or life force"." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'athéisme est une attitude ou une doctrine qui nie l'existence de quelque dieu ou divinité que ce soit, contrairement, par exemple, au déisme et au théisme qui soutiennent ces existences, ou à l'agnosticisme qui considère que personne ne peut répondre à ces questions. C'est une position philosophique qui peut être formulée ainsi : il n'existe rien qui ressemble de près ou de loin à ce que les croyants appellent un «dieu», ou «Dieu».» (DBpedia, 2017)
pantheism
panthéisme
"Pantheism is the belief that all of reality is identical with divinity, or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent god. Pantheists thus do not believe in a distinct personal or anthropomorphic god. In the West, pantheism was formalized as a separate theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza (also known as Benedict Spinoza), whose book Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate. Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate. His work, Ethics was the major source from which Western pantheism spread. Pantheistic concepts may date back thousands of years, and some religions in the East continue to contain pantheistic elements." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le panthéisme est une doctrine philosophique selon laquelle Dieu est tout. Elle se distingue du monothéisme en considérant que Dieu n'est pas un être personnel distinct du monde, mais qu'il est l'intégralité du monde, cette conception est appelée l'immanence par opposition au principe de transcendance du Dieu créateur monothéiste. Ce mot vient du grec ancien pan (πὰν) : «tout» et theos (θεός) («dieu»). Il apparaît pour la première fois en 1720 dans le Pantheisticon de John Toland, ou plus tôt chez Joseph Raphson, en 1697 quand il oppose les panthéistes aux athées et aux matérialistes et les définit comme des penseurs qui affirment qu'il existe une seule substance qui est matérielle et intelligente et qui a tout créé de sa propre substance . Dans la philosophie occidentale, et notamment depuis Spinoza, le sens qui est donné à ce mot tout est en général identique à celui associé à la Nature, au sens le plus général de ce terme, autrement dit, de «tout ce qui existe». Le panthéisme est un naturalisme de la divinité de la Nature. Le naturalisme, au sens propre, peut être défini comme une doctrine athée qui ne reconnaît d'autres principes que les lois ou forces de la Nature. Le panthéisme s'identifie ainsi, sous ce rapport, à un naturalisme déiste déterministe en cela qu'il est lié au concept de nécessité. Il ne doit pas être confondu avec le panenthéisme nommé «acosmique» par Hegel (tout est en Dieu) qui est quant une doctrine issue du panthéisme. Il entretient certains rapports avec les courants monistes qui tentent de résoudre les deux termes d'une dualité en faisant sortir l'un des deux termes de cette dualité de l'un des deux termes en opposition.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Congregationalism
Églises congrégationalistes
Independent Church
Independent
Separatist
"Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition. Many Congregational churches claim their descent from Protestant denominations formed on a theory of union published by the theologian Robert Browne in 1582. These arose from the ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England. In Great Britain, the early Congregationalists were called Separatists or Independents to distinguish them from the similarly Calvinistic Presbyterians. Congregational churches were widely established in the Plymouth Colony and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (later New England), and together wrote the Cambridge Platform of 1648 which described the autonomy of the church and its association with others. Within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in many social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance, and women's suffrage. Modern Congregationalism in the United States is largely split into three bodies: the United Church of Christ, the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches and the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference, which is the most theologically conservative. Congregationalism, as defined by the Pew Research Center, is estimated to represent 0.5% of the worldwide Protestant population." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Églises congrégationalistes sont des églises protestantes de tradition réformée, pratiquant une forme d'organisation d'église où chaque paroisse se gère de manière entièrement autonome et indépendante. Le congrégationalisme se caractérise plus comme un mouvement que comme une dénomination chrétienne en raison de sa conviction fondamentale en faveur de l'autonomie complète de chaque paroisse. Malgré la forte diversité théologique inhérente à leur forme d'organisation, la plupart des congrégationalistes se considèrent d'abord comme des réformés, soit traditionnels soit néo-orthodoxes (barthiens). Les congrégationalistes, selon la définition du centre de recherche indépendant Pew Research Center, représentent environ 0,5% de la population protestante mondiale, soit 4 millions de chrétiens répartis essentiellement dans les grands pays anglophones (Royaume-Uni, États-Unis, Canada, Australie, Afrique du sud, Irlande) et dans quelques «terres de mission» (Argentine, Bulgarie, Îles Samoa). Leur rôle historique et leur influence, notamment aux États-Unis, excèdent largement ces chiffres.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Fifth Monarchists
Cinquièmes Monarchistes
"The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1660 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century. They took their name from a prophecy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede the kingdom of Christ. They also referred to the year 1666 and its relationship to the biblical Number of the Beast indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings. They were one of a number of nonconformist dissenting groups that emerged around this time." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les hommes de la Cinquième Monarchie, ou Cinquièmes Monarchistes (Fifth Monarchy Men ou Fifth Monarchists en anglais) sont une faction idéologique de la Première Révolution anglaise, active de 1649 à 1661. Ils tiennent leur nom de leur croyance en la fondation prochaine d'un royaume planétaire par Jésus retournant sur terre.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Lollardy
"Lollardy (Lollardry, Lollardism) was a political and religious movement that existed from the mid-14th century to the English Reformation. It was initially led by John Wycliffe, a prominent theologian who was dismissed from the University of Oxford in 1381 for criticism of the Church, especially in his doctrine on the Eucharist. The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Lollards sont les membres ou sympathisants d'un mouvement de contestation religieuse et sociale apparu en Angleterre au XIVe siècle. — John Ball» (DBpedia, 2017)
Methodism
Église méthodiste
Methodist Church
Methodist New Connection
"Or United Methodists, an English Nonconformist community formed in 1907 by the union of the Methodist New Connexion (1797), the Bible Christians (1815), and the United Methodist Free Churches (1857). The act of parliament which enabled this amalgamation received the royal assent on the 26th of July 1907, and authorized the union "to deal with real and personal property belonging to the said three churches or denominations, to provide for the vesting of the said property in trust for the United Church so formed and for the assimilation of the trusts thereof, and for other purposes." The union was completed on the 16th of September 1907 in Wesley's Chapel, City Road, London." (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911)
Issu d'un schisme avec l'Église anglicane, le méthodisme est un courant du protestantisme regroupant de nombreuses Églises d'orientations diverses, mais trouvant leur inspiration dans la prédication de John Wesley au XVIIIe siècle. Aujourd'hui, 80 millions de personnes se revendiquent méthodistes. Historiquement, le méthodisme est l'initiateur et le grand propagateur du Réveil qui va se propager à travers le monde, touchant des millions de personnes et revitalisant profondément le protestantisme.
millenarianism
millénarisme, ou chiliasme
milleniarian
"Millenarianism (also millenarism), from Latin mīllēnārius "containing a thousand", is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society, after which all things will be changed. Millenarianism is a concept or theme that exists in many cultures and religions." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le millénarisme, ou chiliasme (ou encore, mais de façon erronée, chialisme), est une doctrine religieuse qui soutient l'idée d'un règne terrestre du Messie, après que celui-ci aura chassé l'Antéchrist et préalablement au Jugement dernier.Cette pensée est présente dans certains courants du judaïsme, dans l'Apocalypse de Jean, dans les écrits des Pères apostoliques et dans l'islam sunnite et chiite.Toujours par extension, le mot peut servir à désigner dans le langage courant des types de pensée non plus religieuses mais politiques.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Neo-thomism
néothomisme
"Neo-Scholasticism (also known as neo-scholastic Thomism or neo-Thomism because of the great influence of the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas on the movement), is a revival and development of medieval scholasticism in Roman Catholic theology and philosophy which began in the second half of the 19th century." (DBpedia, 2017)
««Courant de pensée philosophico-théologique de type thomiste, développé à partir XIXe siècle pour répondre aux objections posées au christianisme catholique par la modernité.»(DBpedia, 2017)
occultism/theosophism
occultisme
Theosophist
Theosophy
Occultist
Tarot card believer
"Any religious or philosophic ideology based on mystical insight into the nature of God and/or divine truth. This insight is attained only through direct experience of the divine. The term is sometimes used to specifically refer to the principles of the Theosophical Society founded in New York in 1875 by Madame Blavatsky and H. S. Olcott which incorporated aspects of Buddhism and Brahmanism." (Getty, 2017)
L'occultisme désigne l'ensemble des arts et sciences occultes (alchimie, astrologie, magie, divination, médecine occulte) touchant aux secrets de la nature, à ce qui est non visible. L'expression « sciences occultes » remonterait au titre d'un livre d'Eusèbe de Salverte, en 1829 (Des sciences occultes). Le mot « occultisme » en français ferait son apparition en 1842. Dès 1884 l'occultiste Joséphin Péladan entend par « occultisme » : « l'ensemble des sciences occultes ». En anglais, occultism date de 1881. Le néo-occultisme traite avec Papus des « facultés occultes de l'Homme » et des « forces invisibles de la Nature ».
Paganism
Paganisme
pagan (Greek)
"Paganism is a term that developed among the Christian community of southern Europe during late antiquity to describe religions other than their own, Judaism, or Islam–the three Abrahamic religions. Throughout Christendom, it continued to be used, typically in a derogatory sense. In the 19th century, it was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-description by practitioners of contemporary pagan, or neo-pagan, religious movements. There has been much scholarly argument as to the origin of the term paganism. Paganism has also been understood by some to include any non-Abrahamic religions, but this is generally[who?] seen as insulting by adherents of those religions. While paganism is often considered to exclude monotheism and to express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. Once monotheistic religions, such as Christianity and Islam, started to become more prominent (in processes known as Christianization and Islamization), names to encompass polytheistic worshipers started to develop; some of these include Hellene, pagan, and heathen, and at times these names were used as slurs. Modern knowledge of old pagan religions comes from several sources, including: anthropological field research records, the evidence of archaeological artifacts, and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to the classical world. Before the rise of monotheistic religions, most people practiced some type of polytheism. Many of these religions started to die out, and eventually they became extinct. In some cases, elements of polytheistic belief systems continued to exist in folklore. Paganism would later be studied during the Renaissance and Romantic era. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, also referred to as Neo-paganism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Paganisme est un terme générique employé depuis le VIe siècle par des chrétiens pour désigner la religion de ceux qui ne sont ni chrétiens, ni juifs, ni musulmans. Il remonte au latin paganus (païen). Au VIe siècle, ce mot pouvait servir à désigner les habitants des campagnes par opposition à ceux des villes ou bien les civils par opposition aux militaires. D'abord employé comme sobriquet populaire par des chrétiens pour désigner ceux qui ne sont pas baptisés, le terme a ensuite été adopté dans la littérature chrétienne. Même s'il y désigne toujours ceux qui ne sont pas chrétiens, son acception y est cependant ambiguë. Il est parfois employé de façon péjorative pour désigner ceux qui sont tenus pour être des ignorants, parfois de façon neutre pour désigner les philosophes grecs, parfois encore pour désigner des chrétiens jugés mal convertis ou tièdes dans leur foi. À partir de 370, des lois impériales regroupées au Ve siècle dans le code théodosien emploient le terme paganus pour désigner ceux qui pratiquent la magie, ceux qui sont considérés comme superstitieux ou dans l'erreur. Le terme a depuis conservé une connotation péjorative. De nombreux Pères de l'Église ayant écrit «contre les païens», le paganisme a eu une première existence sous forme de fiction littéraire, comme s'il s'agissait de la religion de ceux qui ne sont pas chrétiens. Le paganisme tel qu'il a été exposé par les Pères de l'Église n'était cependant pas à proprement parler une religion, il s'agit plutôt de l'ensemble sans homogénéité des positions philosophiques et des croyances rejetées par les Pères de l'Église. Le paganisme est ainsi, dans l'antiquité tardive, une attitude combattue par des chrétiens puis par les autorités, mais elle n'est revendiquée par personne. C'est surtout à l'époque moderne, avec l'essor de l'histoire des religions que le paganisme commence à être perçu et étudié comme une religion parmi d'autres. Le paganisme peut aujourd'hui être revendiqué sous forme de néo-paganisme, ou bien comme une position philosophique tel que l'a fait Marc Augé dans Le génie du paganisme. Le mot paganus n'a pas son correspondant chez les écrivains chrétiens de langue grecque qui utilisent le terme moins péjoratif de «nations» ou «religions nationales» (ethnikoï) (décalque de l'hébreu).» (DBpedia, 2017)
Plymouth Brethren
Frères de Schwarzenau
Assemblées de Frères
"The Plymouth Brethren are a conservative, low church, nonconformist, Evangelical Christian movement whose history can be traced to Dublin, Ireland in the late 1820s, originating from Anglicanism. Among other beliefs, the group emphasises sola scriptura, the belief that the Bible is the supreme authority for church doctrine and practice over and above "the [mere] tradition of men" (Mark 7:8). Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. (The Brethren would generally prefer that their gatherings be referred to as "assemblies" rather than "churches" but, in the interests of simplicity, this article uses both terms interchangeably.) The movement refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself, a stance that some still maintain. The title "The Brethren," however, is one that many of their number are comfortable with, in that the Bible designates all believers as "brethren". ("[O]ne is your Master, even Christ; and all ye are brethren." Matthew 23:8)" (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le courant des Assemblées de Frères ou Plymouth Brethren ou encore Frères de Plymouth constitue l'une des branches du protestantisme évangélique. Ce mouvement est né à Dublin et en Grande-Bretagne vers 1830 et a connu une importante scission en 1848 qui a abouti à distinguer un courant «ouvert» d'une part, les «Open Brethren», et un courant «exclusif» d'autre part, appelé aussi «darbyste». La branche la plus «étroite» a suivi John Nelson Darby et la branche plus ouverte des leaders comme George Müller et Henry Craik. Ces deux courants se sont développés dans le monde et notamment en France pour faire partie des cinq principales dénominations évangéliques sur quarante-trois significatives.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Quakerism
quaker
Society of Friends
Friends, Society of
"Quakers (or Friends) are members of a group of religious Christian movements which is known as the Religious Society of Friends in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and parts of North America; and known as the Friends Church in Africa, Asia, South America and parts of the US. The movements were originally, and are still predominantly based on Christianity. Members of the movements profess the priesthood of all believers, a doctrine derived from the First Epistle of Peter. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity. To differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were approximately 359,000 adult Quakers." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La Société religieuse des Amis est un mouvement religieux fondé en Angleterre au XVIIe siècle par des dissidents de l'Église anglicane. Les membres de ce mouvement sont communément connus sous le nom de quakers () mais ils se nomment entre eux «Amis» et «Amies». Le mouvement est souvent nommé simplement Société des Amis et le surnom de «quaker» apparaît le plus souvent dans la dénomination officielle, sous la forme Société religieuse des Amis (quakers). Les historiens s'accordent à désigner George Fox comme le principal fondateur ou le plus important meneur des débuts du mouvement. Depuis sa création en Angleterre, le mouvement s'est d'abord répandu dans les pays de colonisation anglo-saxonne. Au XXe siècle, des missionnaires quakers ont propagé leur religion en Amérique latine et en Afrique. Aujourd'hui, les quakers déclarent être au nombre d'environ 350 000 dans le monde. La Société des Amis se différencie de la plupart des autres groupes issus du christianisme par l'absence de credo et de toute structure hiérarchique. Pour les quakers, la croyance religieuse appartient à la sphère personnelle et chacun est libre de ses convictions. Le concept de «lumière intérieure» (inner light) est cependant partagé par la plupart d'entre eux, quelle que soit la signification donnée à ces mots. De nombreux quakers reconnaissent le christianisme mais ne ressentent pas leur foi comme entrant dans les catégories chrétiennes traditionnelles. On trouve aujourd'hui dans la Société des Amis des pratiques très diverses, y compris un large courant évangélique.» (DBpedia, 2017)
"Het Religieus Genootschap der Vrienden, beter bekend als quakers, verouderd Nederlands kwakers, vormt een groep ondogmatische gelovigen, die zijn wortels vindt in de christelijke traditie. Het leven en de overgeleverde uitspraken van Jezus vormen een belangrijke inspiratiebron." (DBpedia, 2017)
spritisme
psychic
"Spiritualism is the belief that the spirits of the dead have both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living. The afterlife, or the "spirit world", is seen by spiritualists not as a static place, but as one in which spirits continue to evolve. These two beliefs: that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits are more advanced than humans, lead spiritualists to a third belief, that spirits are capable of providing useful knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about the nature of God. Some spiritualists will speak of a concept which they refer to as "spirit guides"—specific spirits, often contacted, who are relied upon for spiritual guidance. Spiritism, a branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today practiced mostly in Continental Europe and Latin America, especially in Brazil, emphasises reincarnation." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le spiritisme est considéré, selon les sources, comme une superstition, comme une science occulte ou comme une doctrine. Il est fondé sur la croyance que certains phénomènes paranormaux sont le moyen pour des entités de l'au-delà appelées «esprits», le plus souvent des personnes décédées, de communiquer avec les vivants. Ce mot s'applique ainsi, de manière large, à un courant disparate où les pratiquants, appelés «spirites», communiquent avec ces «esprits» par divers moyens, comme des sujets en état de transe (médiums) ou des supports inanimés (tables tournantes...).» (DBpedia, 2017)
Tractarian Movement
tractarianisme
Tractarian
Oxford Movement
"The Oxford Movement was a movement of High Church members of the Church of England which eventually developed into Anglo-Catholicism. The movement, whose original devotees were mostly associated with the University of Oxford, argued for the reinstatement of some older Christian traditions of faith and their inclusion into Anglican liturgy and theology. They thought of Anglicanism as one of three branches of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The movement's philosophy was known as Tractarianism after its series of publications, the Tracts for the Times, published from 1833 to 1841. Tractarians were also disparagingly referred to as "Newmanites" (before 1845) and "Puseyites" (after 1845) after two prominent Tractarians, John Henry Newman and Edward Bouverie Pusey. Other well-known Tractarians included John Keble, Charles Marriott, Richard Froude, Robert Wilberforce, Isaac Williams, and William Palmer." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le Mouvement d'Oxford (Oxford Movement) est un courant théologique anglais du XIXe siècle, situé dans la lignée des théories défendues par la Haute Église (High Church) anglicane.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Unitarianism
Unitarian Movement
Unitarian Church
Unitarian
active unitarian
unitarisme
unitarismo
unitarios
"The liberal Protestant movement that arose in Europe during the 16th century Reformation, was embodied in a church in Transylvania, and achieved denominational status in the 19th century in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. It is characterized by a denial of the orthodox Christian doctrines of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, the free use of reason in religion, and the belief that God exists in one person. In 1961, in the United States and Canada, it merged with the Universalist denomination to form "Unitarian Universalism." Use also generally for the theological doctrines of the unified nature of God and the humanity of Jesus, first expressed in second- and third-century monarchism and in the teachings of Arius in the third and fourth centuries, and later in the radical Neoplatonist thinkers of the Reformation such as Michael Servetus, Faustus Socinus, and Ferenc David." (Getty, 2017)
"In het bijzonder te gebruiken voor de vrijzinnig protestantse beweging die in Europa opkwam tijdens de Reformatie in de 16de eeuw, werd belichaamd door een kerk in Transsylvanië en een confessionele status verkreeg in Groot-Brittannië, de Verenigde Staten en Canada tijdens de 19de eeuw. De beweging wordt gekenmerkt door de afwijzing van de orthodox christelijke leer van de Drie-eenheid en de goddelijke Christus, het vrije gebruik van de rede in religieuze zaken en het geloof dat God bestaat in één persoon. In 1961 fuseerde deze beweging in de Verenigde Staten en Canada met de universalistische beweging, waardoor het ‘unitaristisch universalisme' ontstond. Ook in het algemeen te gebruiken voor de theologische leer van de eenheid van God en het mens-zijn van Jezus, zoals voor het eerst verwoord in het monarchisme van de 2de en 3de eeuw en in de leer van Arius in de 3de en 4de eeuw, en later in de leer van de radicale neoplatonisten uit de Reformatie zoals Michael Servetus, Faustus Socinus en Ferenc David." (Getty, 2017)
"Úsese específicamente para el movimiento protestante liberal que surgió en Europa durante la Reforma del siglo XVI, que tuvo su manifestación en una iglesia en Transilvania, y que logró un estatus confesional en el siglo XIX en el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos y Canadá. Es caracterizado por una desaprobación de las doctrinas cristianas ortodoxas de la Trinidad y la divinidad de Jesús, el libre uso de la razón en la religión y la creencia que Dios existe en una persona. En 1961, en los Estados Unidos y Canadá s" (Getty, 2017)
«L'unitarisme est une doctrine qui affirme que le Dieu du christianisme est une seule personne, et non pas une seule nature ou «ousie» en trois hypostases comme l'affirme le dogme de la Trinité : Père, Fils et Esprit. Selon le dogme de la Trinité, ces trois personnes divines participent d'une seule nature divine unique . Le «trinitarisme» est la doctrine officielle du christianisme depuis le premier concile de Nicée (325) et le concile de Chalcédoine (451).» (DBpedia, 2017)
unitarianMovement
Abrahamic religions
Religions abrahamiques
"Abrahamic religions, emphasising and tracing their common origin to the tribal patriarch Abraham or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him, comprising one of the major divisions in comparative religion, along with Indian, Iranian, and East Asian religions. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the largest Abrahamic religions.The largest Abrahamic religions in chronological order of founding are Judaism (2nd millennium BCE), Christianity (1st century CE) and Islam (7th century CE)." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'expression religion abrahamique désigne principalement le judaïsme, le christianisme dont les Saintes Écritures, respectivement le Tanakh, la Bible évoquent la figure d'Abraham et l'islam avec le Coran, celle d'Ibrahim.En français, cette expression est apparue vers 1950 dans des études d'islamologie pour désigner, d'une part, la religion d'Abraham telle qu'elle se conçoit dans l'islam et d'autre part les trois religions que sont le judaïsme, le christianisme et l'islam.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-clericalism
anticléricalisme
"Anti-clericalism refers to historical movements that oppose the clergy for reasons including their actual or alleged power and influence in all aspects of public and political life and their involvement in the everyday life of the citizen, their privileges, or their enforcement of orthodoxy. Not all anti-clericals are irreligious or anti-religious, some have been religious and have opposed clergy on the basis of institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the Protestant Reformation." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'anticléricalisme est un système opposé aux tendances du clergé. D'après Françoise Marcard, l'anticléricalisme s'oppose au cléricalisme, « sachant qu'il y a présomption de cléricalisme chaque fois que le fait religieux transgresse les frontières du terrain dit temporel ». L'anticléricalisme insiste sur la nécessaire séparation du religieux et du profane. Il postule la liberté de conscience individuelle. Autour de ce noyau dur de convictions, l'anticléricalisme évolue en relation étroite avec le cléricalisme qu'il combat, et d'une façon plus large avec les religions. Selon l'historien et politologue René Rémond : « L'anticléricalisme comporte un élément irréductible et qui est une défiance, peut-être une aversion insurmontable pour toute Église. Si peu clérical que le fait religieux puisse devenir, il gardera toujours de quoi irriter, inquiéter ou susciter l'anticléricalisme. Il y a donc lieu de considérer que l'anticléricalisme constitue un facteur durable du champ des idéologies. » L’anticléricalisme, composante essentielle de la tradition du Siècle des Lumières, reste une position extrêmement minoritaire sur la planète : les croyances et les pratiques religieuses continuent de réguler plus ou moins profondément la vie quotidienne de la plus grande partie de sa population.» (DBpedia, 2018)
asceticism
ascèse
"Asceticism (/əˈsɛtɪsɪzəm/; from the Greek: ἄσκησις áskesis, "exercise" or "training") is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their practices or continue to be part of their society, but typically adopt a frugal lifestyle, characterised by the renunciation of material possessions and physical pleasures, and time spent fasting while concentrating on the practice of religion or reflection upon spiritual matters. Asceticism is classified into two types. "Natural asceticism" consists of a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and a minimum but without maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer, while "unnatural asceticism" is defined as a practice that involves body mortification and self infliction of pain such as by sleeping on a bed of nails. Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism. The practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'ascèse ou ascétisme est une discipline volontaire du corps et de l'esprit cherchant à tendre vers une perfection, par une forme de renoncement ou d'abnégation.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Puritanism
puritanisme
"The Puritans were a group of English Reformed Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to "purify" the Church of England from its "Catholic" practices, maintaining that the Church of England was only partially reformed." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le mot puritanisme a deux acceptions: * l'une ancienne désignant un courant religieux du calvinisme qui désirait « purifier » l'Église d'Angleterre du catholicisme à partir de 1559 et en Nouvelle-Angleterre à partir de 1630. Selon Alexis de Tocqueville, il s'agit tout autant d'une théorie politique que d'une doctrine religieuse. * dans l'autre assertion moderne, plus générale, le mot puritanisme désigne une pudeur excessive, un refus des plaisirs, antonyme de l'hédonisme.» (DBpedia, 2018)
freethought
libre-pensée
free-thinker
sceptic
"Freethought or free thought is a philosophical viewpoint which holds that positions regarding truth should be formed on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism, rather than authority, tradition, revelation, or other dogma. The cognitive application of freethought is known as "freethinking", and practitioners of freethought are known as "freethinkers". The term first came into use in the 17th century to indicate people who inquired into the basis of traditional religious beliefs." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La libre-pensée ou libre pensée est une attitude qui consiste à refuser tout dogmatisme religieux, philosophique ou autre, et à se fier principalement à ses propres expériences et raison (rationalisme, empirisme) pour penser ou juger, quitte à jouer d'opportunisme. De la Grèce antique à la Chine de la dynastie Song en passant par la Perse médiévale, l'histoire de la libre-pensée trouve sa richesse au travers de diverses époques et civilisations. Un auteur typique de la libre-pensée est François Rabelais. En tant que mouvement culturel, dans le monde francophone la libre-pensée est principalement issue des développements de la Révolution française. Par nature contestataire, l'opposition en particulier aux autorités et dogmes religieux y est centrale, surtout dans l'acception moderne du terme (ainsi qu'anglophone (en)). Les libres-penseurs peuvent être athées, agnostiques, déistes, anarchistes (ou libertaires) et rationalistes.» (DBpedia, 2018)
reincarnation
réincarnation
believer in reincarnation
reincarnationist
"Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth was held by such historic figures as Pythagoras, Plato, and Socrates. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar and is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America. Although the majority of sects within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. In recent decades, many Europeans and North Americans have developed an interest in reincarnation. Contemporary films, books, and popular songs frequently mention reincarnation." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La réincarnation (retour dans la chair) désigne un processus de survivance après la mort par lequel un certain principe immatériel et individuel (« âme », « substance vitale », « conscience individuelle », « énergie », voire « esprit ») accomplirait des passages de vies successives dans différents corps (humains, animaux ou végétaux, selon les théories). À la mort du corps physique, l'« âme » quitte ce dernier pour habiter, après une nouvelle naissance, un autre corps. Elle a été assimilée à travers la littérature à la transmigration des âmes, aux concepts de métempsycose, de métensomatose, de palingénésie ainsi qu'à l'Éternel retour. On la retrouve dans diverses religions et philosophies depuis l'antiquité, sans qu'elle ne rencontre, dans aucune d'elles, une unanimité théologique ou dogmatique. Dès la fin du XIXe siècle, la réincarnation a été popularisée en Occident par divers courants ésotériques et spirites. Le psychiatre canadien Ian Stevenson est « internationalement connu » pour avoir tenté de prouver scientifiquement la réincarnation, bien que les résultats de ses recherches soient contestés.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Evangelicalism
évangélisme
Evangelical Church
Evangelical
Evangelical Christian
Evangelicism
Evangelical Protestantism
"Evangelicalism (/ˌiːvænˈdʒɛlɪkəlˌɪzəm/, /ˌɛvən/-), Evangelical Christianity, or Evangelical Protestantism is a worldwide, transdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity maintaining that the essence of the gospel consists in the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ's atonement. Evangelicals believe in the centrality of the conversion or "born again" experience in receiving salvation, in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity, and spreading the Christian message. The movement gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the Great Awakenings in the United Kingdom and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to English Methodism, the Moravian Church (in particular the theology of its bishop Nicolaus Zinzendorf), and German Lutheran Pietism. Today, Evangelicals may be found in many of the Protestant branches, as well as in Protestant denominations not subsumed to a specific branch. Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones. There are an estimated 285 million Evangelicals, comprising 13.1% of the total Christian population and 4.1% of the total world population. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals. Evangelicalism, a major part of popular Protestantism, is among the most dynamic religious movements in the contemporary world, alongside resurgent Islam. While on the rise globally, the developing world is particularly influenced by its spread." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'évangélisme, plus couramment nommé christianisme évangélique ou protestantisme évangélique, est une partie importante du christianisme. Cet ensemble réunit des confessions chrétiennes initialement inspirées par la Réforme protestante dans diverses Églises. Le terme « évangélique » est au départ un simple adjectif découlant du mot Évangile. Les évangéliques se reconnaissent comme issus de la Réforme protestante, mais ils ont parfois été rejetés par les autres protestants ; ce fut le cas du baptisme à partir de 1609, du pentecôtisme à partir de 1906, entre autres… Les églises issues de l'évangélisme sont toutefois nombreuses aujourd'hui à avoir adhéré au Conseil œcuménique des Églises. Les chrétiens évangéliques ont essentiellement en commun l'importance cruciale qu'ils accordent à la conversion individuelle relevant d'un choix personnel et, à la suite, de l'expérience religieuse de la « rencontre avec le Christ ». Ceci implique donc un changement de vie et une relation individuelle avec Dieu s'articulant en toute connaissance de cause autour de la lecture de la Bible et de la communion par la prière (personnelle ou en communauté). Le premier point de distinction d'une église chrétienne évangélique est la nouvelle naissance (conversion personnelle) et le baptême du croyant (adulte). Selon les chiffres du Pew Research Center, en 2011, le mouvement (comprenant le baptisme, pentecôtisme, mouvement charismatique évangélique, mouvement néo-charismatique et christianisme non-dénominationnel) compte 656 millions de croyants.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Calvinism
calvinisme
Reformed
"Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition, Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians. Calvinists broke with the Roman Catholic Church but differed from Lutherans on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of God's law for believers, among other things. The term Calvinism can be misleading, because the religious tradition it denotes is and has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. The movement was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word Reformed. Early influential Reformed theologians include Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century Abraham Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B. Warfield, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Cornelius Van Til, and Gordon Clark were influential, while contemporary Reformed theologians include J. I. Packer, R. C. Sproul, Timothy J. Keller, John Piper, and Michael Horton. Reformed churches may exercise several forms of ecclesiastical polity, but most are presbyterian or congregationalist with some being episcopalian. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions. The biggest Reformed association is the World Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations like the World Reformed Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le calvinisme (nommé ainsi d'après Jean Calvin et aussi appelé la tradition réformée, la foi réformée ou la théologie réformée) est une doctrine théologique protestante et une approche de la vie chrétienne qui reposent sur le principe de la souveraineté de Dieu en toutes choses. Bien qu’elle fût développée par plusieurs théologiens tels que Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Pierre Martyr Vermigli, Ulrich Zwingli et Théodore de Bèze, elle porte le nom du réformateur français Jean Calvin en raison de l’influence dominante qu’il eut sur elle et du rôle déterminant qu’il exerça dans les débats confessionnels et ecclésiastiques du XVIe siècle. Aujourd’hui ce terme fait référence aux doctrines et aux pratiques des Églises réformées. Plus rarement, il désigne l’enseignement de Calvin lui-même. Le calvinisme est aussi connu pour les doctrines de la prédestination et de la corruption totale.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Swedenborgianism
New Church
"The New Church (or Swedenborgianism) is the name for several historically related Christian denominations that developed as a new religious movement, informed by the writings of Swedish scientist and theologian Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772). Swedenborg claimed to have received a new revelation from Jesus Christ through continuous heavenly visions which he experienced over a period of at least twenty-five years. In his writings, he predicted that God would replace the traditional Christian Church, establishing a 'New Church', which would worship God in one person: Jesus Christ. The New Church doctrine is that each person must actively cooperate in repentance, reformation, and regeneration of one's life. The movement was founded on the belief that God explained the spiritual meaning of the Scriptures to Swedenborg as a means of revealing the truth of the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. Swedenborg claimed divine inspiration for his writings and followers believe that Swedenborg witnessed the Last Judgment in the spiritual world, along with the inauguration of the New Church. The New Church is seen by members of New Church organizations as something which the Lord is establishing with all those who believe that the Lord Jesus Christ is the one God of heaven and Earth, and that obeying his commandments is necessary for salvation. Therefore, it is thought that any Christian holding these beliefs is part of this New Church movement. New Church organizations also acknowledge the universal nature of the Lord's church: all who do good from the truth of their religion will be accepted by the Lord into heaven, as God is goodness itself, and doing good conjoins one to God. Adherents believe that the doctrine of the New Church is derived from scripture and provides the benefit of further enlightenment concerning the truth, and that this leads to diminished doubt, a recognition of personal faults, and thus a more directed and happier life. Other names for the movement include Swedenborgian, New Christians, Neo-Christians, Church of the New Jerusalem, and The Lord's New Church. Those outside the church may refer to the movement as Swedenborgianism; however, some adherents seek to distance themselves from this title, since it implies a following of Swedenborg rather than Jesus Christ. Swedenborg published some of his theological works anonymously, and his writings promoted one Church based on love and charity, rather than multiple churches named after their founders based on belief or doctrine." (DBpedia, 2018)
Behemenism
Behmenist
"Behmenism, also Behemenism and similar, is the English-language designation for a 17th-century European Christian movement based on the teachings of German mystic and theosopher Jakob Böhme (1575-1624). The term was not usually applied by followers of Böhme's theosophy to themselves, but rather was used by some opponents of Böhme's thought as a polemical term. The origins of the term date back to the German literature of the 1620s, when opponents of Böhme's thought, such as the Thuringian antinomian Esajas Stiefel, the Lutheran theologian Peter Widmann and others denounced the writings of Böhme and the Böhmisten. When his writings began to appear in England in the 1640s, Böhme's surname was irretrievably corrupted to the form "Behmen" or "Behemen", whence the term "Behmenism" developed. A follower of Böhme's theosophy is a "Behmenist"." (DBpedia, 2018)
Wesleyanism
Wesleyanisme
Wesleyan
Wesleyan Methodist
Wesleyan Independent
"Wesleyanism, or Wesleyan theology, is a movement of Protestant Christians who seek to follow the "methods" or theology of the eighteenth-century evangelical reformers John Wesley and his brother Charles Wesley. More broadly, it refers to the theological system inferred from the various sermons, theological treatises, letters, journals, diaries, hymns, and other spiritual writings of the Wesleys and their contemporary coadjutors such as John William Fletcher. Wesleyanism, manifest today in Methodist and holiness churches, is named for its founders, the Wesleys. In 1736, these two brothers traveled to the Georgia colony in America as missionaries for the Church of England; they left rather disheartened at what they saw. Both of them subsequently had "religious experiences", especially John in 1738, being greatly influenced by the Moravian Christians. They began to organize a renewal movement within the Church of England to focus on personal faith and holiness. John Wesley took Protestant churches to task over the nature of sanctification, the process by which a believer is conformed to the image of Christ, emphasizing New Testament teachings regarding the work of God and the believer in sanctification. The movement did well within the Church of England in Britain, but when the movement crossed the ocean into America, it took on a form of its own, finally being established as the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1784. The Wesleyan churches are very similar to Anglicanism (in Church government and liturgical practices), yet have added a strong emphasis on personal faith and personal experience. At its heart, the theology of John Wesley stressed the life of Christian holiness: to love God with all one’s heart, mind, soul and strength and to love one’s neighbour as oneself. See also Ministry of Jesus. Wesley’s teaching also stressed experiential religion and moral responsibility." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le wesleyanisme ou théologie wesleyaniste est une théologie chrétienne basée sur les enseignements de John Wesley selon une perspective méthodiste. Le concept central de cette théologie est la vie sainte du chrétien : aimer Dieu de tout son cœur, de tout son esprit et de toute son âme, ainsi qu'aimer son prochain comme soi-même. Les enseignements de Wesley insistent sur l'expérience religieuse et la responsabilité morale. Wesleyan est la forme adjectivée anglaise du nom propre Wesley qui réfère soit à John Wesley, le fondateur du méthodisme, une tendance du mouvement protestant, soit à une ou l’autre des églises méthodistes qui en découlent. L’Église wesleyenne s’est séparée de l’Église méthodiste épiscopale en 1843.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Moravian
Frères moraves
"The Moravian Church (Latin: Unitas Fratrum, meaning Unity of the Brethren; Czech: Jednota bratrská or Moravští bratři), in German known as Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine (meaning Brethren's Congregation from Herrnhut, the place of the church's renewal in the 18th century), is one of the oldest Protestant denominations in the world, with its heritage dating back to the Bohemian Reformation in the fifteenth century. The name by which the Church is commonly known comes from the original exiles who fled to Saxony in 1722 from Moravia to escape religious persecution, but its heritage began in 1457 in Bohemia and its crown lands (Moravia and Silesia), then an autonomous kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire (today the Czech Republic). The modern Unitas Fratrum, with about 750,000 members worldwide, continues to draw on traditions established during the eighteenth century. The Moravians continue their long tradition of missionary work, for example in the Caribbean. This is reflected in their broad global distribution. The Church places a high value on ecumenism, personal piety, missions and music. The Church’s emblem is the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei) with the flag of victory, surrounded by the Latin inscription: Vicit agnus noster, eum sequamur (English: "Our Lamb has conquered, let us follow Him")." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Frères moraves sont une branche du protestantisme issue de Moravie, apparentée aux Frères Tchèques et rassemblée aujourd'hui dans la communion Unitas Fratrum.» (DBpedia, 2018)
mysticism
mystique
mystic
Eastern mysticism
"Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, and to human transformation supported by various practices and experiences. The term "mysticism" has Ancient Greek origins with various historically determined meanings. Derived from the Greek word μυω, meaning "to conceal", mysticism referred to the biblical liturgical, spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early and medieval Christianity. During the early modern period, the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad range of beliefs and ideologies related to "extraordinary experiences and states of mind". In modern times, "mysticism" has acquired a limited definition, with broad applications, as meaning the aim at the "union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God". This limited definition has been applied to a wide range of religious traditions and practices, valuing "mystical experience" as a key element of mysticism. Since the 1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches in the scientific research of "mystical experiences". The perennial position is now "largely dismissed by scholars," most scholars using a contextual approach, which takes the cultural and historical context into consideration. Broadly defined, mysticism can be found in all religious traditions, from indigenous religions and folk religions like shamanism, to organised religions like the Abrahamic faiths and Indian religions, and modern spirituality, New Age and New Religious Movements." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La mystique ou le mysticisme est ce qui a trait aux mystères, aux choses cachées ou secrètes. Le terme relève principalement du domaine religieux, et sert à qualifier ou à désigner des expériences spirituelles de l'ordre du contact ou de la communication avec une réalité transcendante non discernable par le sens commun. « Mystique » vient de l'adjectif grec μυστικός (mustikos). C'est un mot de la même famille que le verbe μυέω (muéô) qui signifie « initier, enseigner », et que le nom μυστήριον (mustérion) qui a donné « mystère ». Bien qu'il remonte à l'Antiquité, le terme mystique n'est employé comme substantif, c'est-à-dire comme nom pour désigner « la mystique », que depuis le XVIIe siècle. Avant cela, il n'existe que comme adjectif : est mystique ce qui relève de la connaissance du mystère ou d'un mystère. La notion de mystique a été développée dans le christianisme en rapport avec une conception biblique et plus particulièrement paulinienne du mystère selon laquelle ce dernier s'identifie avec la révélation de Dieu en Jésus-Christ. Avec le sens que l'adjectif mystique reçoit de cette conception du mystère, c'est le christianisme dans son ensemble qui peut être considéré comme mystique. Le christianisme apparaît dans un contexte gréco-romain marqué par la présence de nombreux cultes à mystères dont la dimension initiatique trouve des échos dans l'initiation chrétienne par les sacrements (mystérion en grec) et dans la catéchèse « mystagogiques » des premiers temps du christianisme. Par ailleurs, la théologie des Pères de l'Église relève largement des options de la philosophie néoplatonicienne dans laquelle la connaissance de Dieu est apophatique. Le traité De la théologie mystique rédigé en grec au VIe siècle par le pseudo-Denys l'Aréopagite s'inscrit dans cette tradition. À partir du XIIe siècle, il a une influence considérable sur les auteurs latins. Au XVe siècle, des débats sur ce traité donnent lieu à une « théorie de La théologie mystique » notamment de la part de Jean de Gerson. Au XVIIe siècle Jean-Joseph Surin envisage la mystique comme une science, fournissant des considérations qui comptent parmi les premières sur ce qui s'appelle depuis « la mystique ». La mystique a commencé à être objet de défiance et de rejet dans le christianisme dès qu'elle y a été identifiée comme une forme particulière de l'expérience religieuse[pas clair]. La réflexion sur la mystique s'est poursuivie du XVIIe au XXe siècle en débordant largement son tropisme chrétien. Considérée non plus seulement comme une théologie au sein du christianisme, elle est pensée comme un phénomène universel. Depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, dans l'étude comparée des religions, la mystique se définit à partir de courants identifiés comme tels sur la base de comparaisons avec la mystique dans le monde chrétien : il peut dès lors être question de mystique pour le brahmanisme de l'Inde, la kabbale dans le judaïsme, le soufisme en islam, le taoïsme en Chine, etc. Les tentatives de décrire et éventuellement d'expliquer ce phénomène sont nombreuses dans la première moitié du XXe siècle, où la mystique est objet de différentes théories en anthropologie, en psychologie, en sociologie et en philosophie. Dans la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, de nombreuses œuvres d'auteurs chrétiens du XIIe au XVIe siècle sont traduites, publiées et étudiées : les mystiques rhénans, Saint Jean de la Croix, Sainte Thérèse d'Avila, etc., ce par quoi l'intérêt pour « la mystique » s'est élargi à l'étude de la tradition intellectuelle et religieuse qui l'a précédée. À partir des années 1920 a commencé à se poser la question de savoir si la mystique pouvait être athée. Jean-Claude Bologne, qui se définit comme athée, affirme avoir eu des expériences mystiques. Pour Michel Hulin, des expériences mystiques peuvent se produire hors de tout cadre religieux défini. Dans La mystique sauvage, il analyse les expériences mystiques non comme un aspect du phénomène religieux mais pour elles-mêmes, sans limiter le sujet en fonction des découpages catégoriels fondés sur l'une ou l'autre conception de la religion, ni à ce qui relève des religions habituellement reconnues ou identifiées comme telles. La mystique relève pour lui d'états modifiés de conscience « à la faveur desquels le sujet éprouve l'impression de s'éveiller à une réalité plus haute, de percer le voile des apparences, de vivre par anticipation quelque chose comme un salut ». Des études ont été faites en neurosciences depuis les années 1950 pour tenter d'expliquer le phénomène de l'expérience mystique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
New Thought
Nouvelle Pensée
"The New Thought movement is a philosophical movement which developed in the United States in the 19th century, following the teachings of Phineas Quimby. There are numerous smaller groups, most of which are incorporated in the International New Thought Alliance. The concept of New Thought (sometimes known as "Higher Thought") promotes the ideas that Infinite Intelligence, or God, is everywhere, spirit is the totality of real things, true human selfhood is divine, divine thought is a force for good, sickness originates in the mind, and "right thinking" has a healing effect. Although New Thought is neither monolithic nor doctrinaire, in general, modern-day adherents of New Thought believe that God or Infinite Intelligence is "supreme, universal, and everlasting", that divinity dwells within each person, that all people are spiritual beings, that "the highest spiritual principle [is] loving one another unconditionally... and teaching and healing one another", and that "our mental states are carried forward into manifestation and become our experience in daily living". The New Thought movement originated in the early 19th century, and survives to the current day in the form of a loosely allied group of religious denominations, authors, philosophers, and individuals who share a set of beliefs concerning metaphysics, positive thinking, the law of attraction, healing, life force, creative visualization, and personal power. The teachings of Christian Science are similar to and partially based on Quimby's teachings, as its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, was a student of Quimby's." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La Nouvelle Pensée (New Thought), parfois également appelée Penser Nouveau, est un courant de pensée philosophique et religieux qui s'est développé dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle aux États-Unis et existe encore de nos jours. Ce courant, à ne pas confondre avec le New Age, couvre un ensemble d'organisations, de philosophes et de théologiens partageant une série de croyances métaphysiques.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Universalist
universal salvation
"Universalism is a religious, theological, and philosophical concept with universal application or applicability. Universalist doctrines consider all people in their formation. In terms of religion, in a broad sense, universalism claims that religion is a universal human quality. This can be contrasted with non-universalist religions. Religion in this context is defined as "a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs." In some sects of Christianity, universal reconciliation is the doctrine that all sinful and alienated human souls — because of divine love and mercy — will ultimately be reconciled to God. Unitarian Universalism believes that religion is a universal human quality, emphasizing the universal principles of most religions and accepting other religions in an inclusive manner, believing in a universal reconciliation between humanity and the divine. Universalism has had a strong influence on modern Hinduism, in turn influencing western modern spirituality. A community that calls itself universalist may emphasize the universal principles of most religions and accept other religions in an inclusive manner, believing in a universal reconciliation between humanity and the divine. For example, some forms of Abrahamic religions happened to claim the universal value of their doctrine and moral principles, and feel inclusive. A belief in one common truth is also another important tenet. The living truth is seen as more far-reaching than national, cultural, or religious boundaries." (DBpedia, 2018)
Darwinism
Darwinisme
Darwinist
evolutionist
"Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, of the Weismann barrier or in genetics of the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life, and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860. It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called "the eclipse of Darwinism," scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. The development of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form. While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson and Eugenie Scott that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example. In the United States, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism, but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, with evolution by natural selection." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le darwinisme désigne, en son sens strict, la théorie, formulée en 1859 (in De l'origine des espèces) par le naturaliste anglais Charles Darwin, et qui explique « l'évolution biologique des espèces par la sélection naturelle et la concurrence vitale ». Il est aussi relativement courant d'entendre parler d'évolution darwinienne, pour parler de l'évolution autonome d'un pool quelconque (population et distribution de caractères) sur plusieurs générations.» (DBpedia, 2018)
deism
déisme
deist
"Deism (/ˈdiː.ɪzəm/‍ or /ˈdeɪ.ɪzəm/), derived from a Latin word "deus" meaning "god", is a theological/philosophical position that combines the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge with the conclusion that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator of the universe. Deism gained prominence among intellectuals during the Age of Enlightenment—especially in Britain, France, Germany and the United States—who, raised as Christians, believed in one God but became disenchanted with organized religion and notions such as the Trinity, Biblical inerrancy and the supernatural interpretation of events such as miracles. Included in those influenced by its ideas were leaders of the American and French Revolutions. Today, deism is considered to exist in two principal forms: classical and modern where the classical view takes what is called a "cold" approach by asserting the non-intervention of deity in the natural behavior of the created universe, while the modern deist formulation can be either "warm" (citing an involved deity) or cold, non-interventionist creator. These lead to many subdivisions of modern deism which tends, therefore, to serve as an overall category of belief. Despite this classification of Deism today, classical Deists themselves rarely wrote or accepted that the Creator is a non-interventionist during the flowering of Deism in the 16th and 17th centuries; using straw man arguments, their theological critics attempted to force them into this position." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le déisme, du latin deus (dieu), est une croyance ou une doctrine qui affirme l'existence d'un Dieu et son influence dans la création de l'Univers, sans s'appuyer sur des textes sacrés ou dépendre d'une religion révélée. Pour la pensée déiste, certaines caractéristiques de Dieu peuvent être comprises par les facultés intellectuelles de l'Homme. Le déisme prône une « religion naturelle » qui se vit par l'expérience individuelle et qui ne repose pas sur une tradition écrite. Pour certains déistes, on peut avoir une relation avec Dieu mais elle est directe (notamment par la contemplation). Il s'agit par conséquent d'une croyance individuelle et irréligieuse. Les déistes rejettent tous les événements surnaturels (prophéties, miracles) et affirment que Dieu (ou « l'Architecte suprême ») a un plan pour l'Univers, que Dieu n'altère ni n'intervient dans les affaires humaines, ni ne suspend les lois naturelles qui régissent l'Univers. Le déisme n'est donc pas un théisme. Ce que les religions structurées voient comme révélation divine et livres saints, un déiste le voit comme de simples interprétations faites par l'homme; ainsi aucune source religieuse ne peut faire autorité.» (DBpedia, 2018)
faith healing
faith-healing
"Faith healing is the ritualistic practice of prayer and gestures (such as laying on of hands) that are claimed to elicit divine intervention in spiritual and physical healing, especially the Christian practice. Believers assert that the healing of disease and disability can be brought about by religious faith through prayer and/or other rituals that, according to adherents, stimulate a divine presence and power. Belief in such divine intervention is derived from religious belief. Claims "attributed to a myriad of techniques" such as prayer, divine intervention, or the ministrations of an individual healer can cure illness have been popular throughout history. There have been claims that faith can cure blindness, deafness, cancer, AIDS, developmental disorders, anemia, arthritis, corns, defective speech, multiple sclerosis, skin rashes, total body paralysis, and various injuries. Miraculous recoveries have been attributed to many techniques commonly classified as faith healing. It can involve prayer, a visit to a religious shrine, or simply a strong belief in a supreme being. Many people interpret the Bible, especially the New Testament, as teaching belief in, and the practice of, faith healing. According to a Newsweek poll, 72 percent of Americans say they believe that praying to God can cure someone, even if science says the person doesn't stand a chance. Unlike faith healing, advocates of spiritual healing make no attempt to seek divine intervention, instead believing in divine energy. The increased interest in alternative medicine at the end of the 20th century has given rise to a parallel interest among sociologists in the relationship of religion to health. Faith healing can be classified as a spiritual, supernatural, or paranormal event, and, in some cases, belief in faith healing can be classified as magical thinking. The American Cancer Society states "available scientific evidence does not support claims that faith healing can actually cure physical ailments." "Death, disability, and other unwanted outcomes have occurred when faith healing was elected instead of medical care for serious injuries or illnesses." When parents use faith healing in the place of medical care, some children have died that otherwise would have been expected to live. Similar results are found in adults." (DBpedia, 2018)
fatalism
fatalisme
fatalist
Necessarian
"Fatalism is a philosophical doctrine stressing the subjugation of all events or actions to fate. Fatalism generally refers to any of the following ideas: 1. * The view that we are powerless to do anything other than what we actually do. Included in this is that man has no power to influence the future, or indeed, his own actions. This belief is very similar to predeterminism. 2. * An attitude of resignation in the face of some future event or events which are thought to be inevitable. Friedrich Nietzsche named this idea with "Turkish fatalism" in his book The Wanderer and His Shadow. 3. * That acceptance is appropriate, rather than resistance against inevitability. This belief is very similar to defeatism." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le fatalisme (mot formé à partir du latin fatum : le « destin ») est une doctrine selon laquelle le monde dans son ensemble, et l'existence humaine en particulier, suivent une marche inéluctable (fatalité), où le cours des événements échappe à la volonté humaine. De ce point de vue, le destin serait fixé d’avance par une puissance supérieure aux êtres humains, qui peut être Dieu, ou bien la nécessité naturelle, ou encore les lois gouvernant l’histoire. Du point de vue moral, le fatalisme est un déterminisme ou un prédéterminisme, selon lequel les causes du cours des événements sont indépendantes de la volonté humaine, ce qui revient à nier à première vue la liberté de choix de l’homme. Dans un sens affaibli, le fatalisme peut désigner une attitude ponctuelle, à savoir le défaitisme ou le pessimisme de celui qui, se sentant voué à l'échec, laisse le destin suivre son cours et abandonne le combat, ou quitte une situation délicate en baissant les bras.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Freemasonry
franc-maçonnerie
Freemason
"Freemasonry or Masonry consists of fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local fraternities of stonemasons, which from the end of the fourteenth century regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients. The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow (now called Fellowcraft), and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry. Members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, and are usually administered by different bodies than the craft degrees. The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the regional level (usually coterminous with either a state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate. Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Regular Freemasonry insists that a volume of scripture is open in a working lodge, that every member profess belief in a Deity, that no women are admitted, and that the discussion of religion and politics is banned. Continental Freemasonry is now the general term for the "liberal" jurisdictions who have removed some, or all, of these restrictions." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le mot franc-maçonnerie désigne un ensemble d'espaces de sociabilité sélectifs, formé de phénomènes historiques et sociaux très divers. Le recrutement des membres est fait par cooptation et pratique des rites initiatiques se référant à un secret maçonnique et à l'art de bâtir.Difficilement traçable historiquement, la franc-maçonnerie semble apparaître en 1598 en Écosse (Statuts Schaw), puis en Angleterre au XVIIe siècle. Elle se décrit, suivant les époques, les pays et les formes, comme une « association essentiellement philosophique et philanthropique », comme un « système de morale illustré par des symboles » ou comme un « ordre initiatique ». Organisée en obédiences depuis 1717 à Londres, la franc-maçonnerie dite « spéculative » — c'est-à-dire philosophique — fait référence aux rites des Anciens Devoirs de la « maçonnerie » dite « opérative » formée par les corporations de bâtisseurs qui édifièrent, entre autres, les cathédrales. Elle prodigue un enseignement ésotérique progressif à l'aide de symboles et de rituels. Elle encourage ses membres à œuvrer pour le progrès de l'humanité, laisse à chacun le soin d'interpréter ces mots. Sa vocation se veut universelle, bien que ses pratiques et ses modes d'organisation soient extrêmement variables selon les pays et les époques. Elle s'est structurée au fil des siècles autour d'un grand nombre de rites et de traditions, ce qui a entraîné la création d'une multitude d'obédiences, qui ne se reconnaissent pas toutes entre elles. Elle a toujours fait l'objet de nombreuses critiques et dénonciations, aux motifs très variables selon les époques et les pays. Une discipline de réflexion porte sur la franc-maçonnerie : la maçonnologie.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Latitudinarianism
Latitudinarian
latudinarian
"Latitudinarian was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th-century English theologians who believed in conforming to official Church of England practices but who felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance. Good examples of the latitudinarian philosophy were found among the Cambridge Platonists and Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici. Additionally, the term has been ascribed to ministers of the Scottish Episcopal Church in Scotland who were educated at the Episcopal sympathizing universities at Aberdeen and St Andrews and that broadly subscribed to their moderate Anglican English counterparts. Today, latitudinarianism should not be confused with ecumenical movements, which seek to draw all Christian churches together, rather than to de-emphasize practical doctrine. The term has taken on a more general meaning, indicating a personal philosophy which includes tolerance of other views, particularly (but not necessarily) on religious matters. In the Roman Catholic Church, latitudinarianism was condemned in the 19th century document Quanta cura; Pope Pius IX felt that, with its emphasis on religious liberty and freedom to discard traditional Christian doctrines and dogmas, this attitude threatened to undermine the church. Latitudinarianism is still criticized within the Catholic Church under the epithet of Cafeteria Catholic. It has been perceived as a disingenuous claim to be Roman Catholic while ignoring, being indifferent towards, or denying Catholic dogma and praxis." (DBpedia, 2018)
Seekers
"The Seekers, or Legatine-Arians as they were sometimes known, were an English Protestant dissenting group that emerged around the 1620s, probably inspired by the preaching of three brothers – Walter, Thomas, and Bartholomew Legate. Seekers considered all organised churches of their day corrupt and preferred to wait for God's revelation. Many of them subsequently joined the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)." (DBpedia, 2018)
Sufism
Soufisme
"Sufism or Taṣawwuf (Arabic: التصوف‎‎) is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Practitioners of Sufism, referred to as Sufis (ṣūfī) (/ˈsuːfi/; صُوفِيّ), often belong to different ṭuruq or "orders"—congregations formed around a grand master referred to as a mawla who traces a direct chain of teachers back to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. These orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs, or tekke. Sufis strive for ihsan (perfection of worship) as detailed in a hadith: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Rumi stated: "The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. Sufis regard Muhammad as their leader and prime spiritual guide. All Sufi orders trace many of their original precepts from Muhammad through his cousin and son-in-law Ali with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi, who claim to trace their origins from Muhammad through the first Rashid Caliph, Abu Bakr. Sufi orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs (jurisprudent schools of thought) of Sunni Islam and maintain a Sunni aqidah (creed). Classical Sufis were characterised by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750). Sufis have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing their beliefs in Arabic before spreading into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among dozens of other languages. According to William Chittick, "In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, and intensification of Islamic faith and practice."" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le soufisme (en arabe : تصوف [taṣawwuf]) ou taçawwuf désigne en islam le cœur de la tradition islamique. Le mot taçawwuf peut se traduire correctement par « initiation ». Il désigne "el-haqîqah" c'est-à-dire la "vérité" intérieure qui vivifie et permet la compréhension profonde de "es-shariyah" (la "grande route"). Le Taçawwuf comprend non seulement la haqîqah mais aussi l'ensemble des moyens destinés à y parvenir, appelé tarîqah - "voie" ou "sentier" - conduisant de la shariyah vers la haqîqah, c'est-à-dire de l'"écorce" (el-qishr) vers le "noyau" (el-lobb) par l'intermédiaire du "rayon" allant de la circonférence vers le centre. Le soufisme est intimement lié, depuis les origines de révélation prophétique de l'islam, à la fois aux orthodoxies sunnite et chiite, bien qu'il ait pris des formes différentes dans les deux cas. Pour Ibn Arabi, « Le soufisme ce n'est rien de plus que les cinq prières et l'attente de la mort ». Ibn Arabi précise en citant cette formule : « Il y a là une science immense ».» (DBpedia, 2018)
Jansenism
Jansénisme
"Jansenism was a Catholic theological movement, primarily in France, that emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination. The movement originated from the posthumously published work of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. It was first popularized by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey, and after Duvergier's death in 1643, was led by Antoine Arnauld. Through the 17th and into the 18th centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological centre of the movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for writers including Duvergier, Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, and Jean Racine. Jansenism was opposed by many in the Catholic hierarchy, especially the Jesuits. Although the Jansenists identified themselves only as rigorous followers of Augustine of Hippo's teachings, Jesuits coined the term "Jansenism" to identify them as having Calvinist affinities. The apostolic constitution Cum occasione promulgated by Pope Innocent X in 1653, condemned five cardinal doctrines of Jansenism as heresy—especially the relationship between human free will and efficacious grace, wherein the teachings of Augustine, as presented by the Jansenists, contradicted the teachings of the Jesuit School. Jansenist leaders endeavored to accommodate the pope's pronouncements while retaining their uniqueness, and enjoyed a measure of peace in the late 17th century under Pope Clement IX. However, further controversy led to the apostolic constitution Unigenitus Dei Filius, promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713, which marked the end of Catholic toleration of Jansenist doctrine." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le jansénisme est une doctrine théologique à l'origine d'un mouvement religieux, puis politique et philosophique, qui se développe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, principalement en France, en réaction à certaines évolutions de l'Église catholique et à l'absolutisme royal. La définition même du jansénisme s’avère problématique, dans la mesure où les jansénistes ont rarement assumé cette appellation, se considérant seulement comme catholiques. Ceux-ci possèdent toutefois quelques traits caractéristiques, comme la volonté de s’en tenir strictement à la doctrine de saint Augustin sur la grâce, conçue comme la négation de la liberté humaine pour faire le bien et obtenir le salut. Cela ne serait possible selon eux que par le biais de la grâce divine. Les jansénistes se distinguent aussi par leur rigorisme spirituel et leur hostilité envers la compagnie de Jésus et sa casuistique, comme envers un pouvoir trop puissant du Saint-Siège. Dès la fin du XVIIe siècle, ce courant spirituel se double d’un aspect politique, les opposants à l’absolutisme royal étant largement identifiés aux jansénistes. Le jansénisme naît au cœur de la réforme catholique. Il doit son nom à l’évêque d’Ypres, Cornelius Jansen, auteur de son texte fondateur l’Augustinus, publié en 1640. Cette œuvre est l’aboutissement de débats sur la grâce remontant à plusieurs dizaines d’années, coïncidant avec l’hostilité grandissante d'une partie du clergé catholique envers la compagnie de Jésus ; il prétend établir la position réelle d'Augustin sur le sujet, qui serait opposée à celle des jésuites, ceux-ci donnant une importance trop grande à la liberté humaine. L’Augustinus provoque de vifs débats, en particulier en France, où cinq propositions prétendument hérétiques sont extraites de l’ouvrage par des docteurs hostiles à l’évêque d’Ypres ; celles-ci sont condamnées en 1653 par le pape. Les défenseurs de Jansenius répliquent en distinguant « le droit et le fait » : les propositions seraient bien hérétiques, mais on ne les retrouverait pas dans l’Augustinus. Ils s’attaquent également à la casuistique jugée laxiste des jésuites, en particulier avec Les Provinciales de Blaise Pascal, lettres fictives défendant leur cause, qui suscitent un large écho dans l’opinion française. Dans le même temps, ayant pour haut lieu l’abbaye de Port-Royal, la spiritualité janséniste se développe et se popularise. Cependant, considérés comme des ennemis de la monarchie, les jansénistes sont très vite l’objet de l’hostilité du pouvoir royal : Louis XIV et ses successeurs initient contre eux de fortes persécutions. De même, les papes font preuve d’une sévérité grandissante à leur égard, avec notamment la proclamation de la bulle Unigenitus en 1713. Dans ce contexte, le jansénisme se confond au XVIIIe siècle avec la lutte contre l’absolutisme et l’ultramontanisme. Les clercs soutenant la Révolution française et la constitution civile du clergé sont ainsi jansénistes pour une grande part. Toutefois, au XIXe siècle, le jansénisme s’étiole et disparaît, le concile Vatican I mettant un terme définitif à la plupart des débats ayant provoqué son apparition.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Adventism
Adventisme
Second Adventist
"Adventism is a branch of Protestantism with origins in the 19th century American Protestant revival known as the Second Great Awakening. The name refers to belief in the imminent Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. William Miller started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as Millerites. Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole Bible, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification. In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches. The largest church within the movement — the Seventh-day Adventist Church — is one of the largest Christian churches in the world, with more than 18 million baptized members." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'adventisme est un mouvement chrétien lancé au XIXe siècle dans le contexte du Second grand réveil aux États-Unis. L'expression se réfère à la doctrine de la deuxième venue de Jésus-Christ, aussi appelée « le retour du Christ ». Ceux qui adhérèrent à l'enseignement du prédicateur baptiste William Miller furent appelés les millerites. Le mot « adventisme » ou « adventisme du septième jour » désigne aussi ce qui touche à l'histoire, les croyances, la mission, l'organisation et la sociologie de l'Église adventiste du septième jour, la plus grande dénomination adventiste. Le terme n'est nullement restreint aux dénominations adventistes. Une personne qui attend le retour du Christ est dans les faits un « adventiste ». L'Église primitive des rois mages annonça et attendit le retour des apôtres. Des ordres catholiques y accordèrent leur attention. L'histoire et l'identité spirituelle du mouvement adventiste prennent leurs sources différentes dans la réforme luthérienne, le baptisme, le piétisme, le méthodisme et les réveils. Un intérêt pour l'étude des textes prophétiques de la Bible abordant la question de la venue en gloire du Christ est très attesté tout au long de l'histoire protestante. À partir du XVIIIe siècle en Europe cet intérêt devint plus profond et inspira la prédication revivaliste, ainsi que celle de William Miller. Ellen G. White proposa sa version de l'adventisme dans son livre "La tragédie des siècles" (1911).» (DBpedia, 2018)
Bushido
"Bushido (武士道, "the way of the warrior") is a Japanese term for the samurai way of life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry in Europe. Just like the knights of Europe, the samurai had a code to live by that was also based in a moral way of life. The "way" itself originates from the samurai moral values, most commonly stressing some combination of frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, and honor until death. Born from Neo-Confucianism during times of peace in Tokugawa Japan and following Confucian texts, Bushido was also influenced by Shinto and Zen Buddhism, allowing the violent existence of the samurai to be tempered by wisdom and serenity. Bushidō developed between the 16th and 20th centuries, debated by pundits who believed they were building on a legacy dating back to the 10th century, although some scholars have noted that the term bushidō itself is "rarely attested in premodern literature". Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, some aspects of warrior values became formalized into Japanese feudal law. The word was first used in Japan during the 17th century in Kōyō Gunkan. It came into common usage in Japan and the West after the 1899 publication of Nitobe Inazō's Bushido: The Soul of Japan. In Bushido (1899), Nitobe wrote: […] Bushidō, then, is the code of moral principles which the samurai were required or instructed to observe […] More frequently it is a code unuttered and unwritten […] It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. In order to become a samurai this code has to be mastered. Nitobe was not the first to document Japanese chivalry in this way. In Feudal and Modern Japan (1896), historian Arthur May Knapp wrote: "The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law of honor, obedience, duty, and self-sacrifice.... It was not needed to create or establish them. As a child he had but to be instructed, as indeed he was from his earliest years, in the etiquette of self-immolation."" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le bushido est le code des principes moraux que les samouraïs japonais étaient tenus d'observer.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Camisards
Camisard
French Prophets
"Camisards were Huguenots (French Protestants) of the rugged and isolated Cévennes region, and the Vaunage in southern France. They raised an insurrection against the persecutions which followed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which had made being Protestant illegal. The Camisards operated throughout the mainly protestant Cévennes region which in the eighteenth century also included the Vaunage and the parts of the Camargue around Aigues Mortes. The revolt by the Camisards broke out in 1702, with the worst of the fighting continuing until 1704, then scattered fighting until 1710 and a final peace by 1715. The Edict of Tolerance was not finally signed until 1787." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Les Camisards étaient des protestants français (huguenots) de la région des Cévennes, en France, qui ont mené une insurrection contre les persécutions qui ont suivi la Révocation de l'Édit de Nantes en 1685. De 1685 à 1700, le petit peuple protestant est lentement passé de la résignation à la révolte, et tous ses pasteurs ayant été exécutés ou mis en fuite, il se retrouve sans leaders. La place des pasteurs est alors prise par des "inspirés", prophètes sans formation qui appellent parfois ouvertement à la révolte violente. La Guerre des Cévennes éclate en 1702, avec les affrontements de plus en plus importants jusqu'en 1704, puis une lutte moindre jusqu'en 1710 avant une paix définitive en 1715.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Cartesianism
Cartésianisme
Cartesian
"Cartesianism is the name given to the philosophical and scientific system of René Descartes and its subsequent development by other seventeenth century thinkers, most notably Nicolas Malebranche and Baruch Spinoza. Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the natural sciences. For him, the philosophy was a thinking system that embodied all knowledge, and expressed it in this way: Cartesians view the mind as being wholly separate from the corporeal body. Sensation and the perception of reality are thought to be the source of untruth and illusions, with the only reliable truths to be had in the existence of a metaphysical mind. Such a mind can perhaps interact with a physical body, but it does not exist in the body, nor even in the same physical plane as the body. The question of how mind and body interact would be a persistent difficulty for Descartes and his followers, with different Cartesians providing different answers." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le cartésianisme désigne un courant philosophique qui se réclame des principes et des thèses de la pensée de René Descartes (1596-1650). Le cartésianisme s'est particulièrement manifesté à travers le premier ouvrage philosophique publié en langue française, le célèbre Discours de la méthode (1637), sous-titré « pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la vérité dans les sciences ». Le cartésianisme est une philosophie rationaliste et métaphysique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
determinism
déterminisme
predestinarianism
"Determinism is the philosophical doctrine that all events transpire in virtue of some necessity and are therefore inevitable. Traditionally, the view relies on strict notions of causality, and most philosophical arguments in its favor have attempted at clear definitions of cause and effect as a basis for the belief that determinism is true. Notably, the idea that the past choices of seemingly rational agents could have been performed differently - or even the idea that the future decisions of such agents will turn out to be other than what they will - is usually challenged under this view. Thus, the "problem" of free will - or the idea of free will as being an "illusion" - often arises as a result of the main claim made by determinism, that is, that the past, present, and future is identifiable with an essentially unbreakable chain of circumstances of which no single link in such a chain could possibly be avoided or altered. Some determinists deny the idea of any true "possibility" or "randomness" within reality altogether, even asserting that such ideas are only a creation of the mind and/or merely the result of imagination - ultimately a result of ignorance in the face of real explanations for such phenomena - which could otherwise, in principle, be either derived by reason or discovered by empirical experimentation. However, addressing free will is its own concern, and any discussion of determinism does not demand any discussion of free will. In addition to these issues, the length to which language can actually capture what exactly is at stake, assuming that anything is at stake at all - or even what the true nature of reality really is in spite of how convincing the nature of the concept of determinism seems to be - is itself disputed. This final note verges on - or fully engages in - the territory of the philosophy of language. The truth of determinism is often acknowledged - at bottom - as a belief, rather than a fact or scientifically viable theory or law. This implies that its supposed truth would always be restricted to philosophical speculation and argumentation rather than by scientific demonstration or formally proven within the mathematical basis of physics or even within theoretical physics. There are those who doubt this claim, and instead view the truth of determinism to follow suit with other revolutions throughout history, such as the theory of relativity or the theory of evolution. Whether or not determinism poses a real threat to traditional notions of responsibility, morality, or legal process is disputed among philosophers. As contentious as this is also whether the truth of determinism introduces any challenges to meaning and purposeful effort - or the value of decision making and seemingly important life choices - most notably in the form of nihilism or fatalism. This perspective is represented by philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Noam Chomsky, among others. Just the opposite is also argued, that determinism actually posits a more meaningful aspect to life, in the form of rational optimism, usually in the form of celebrating the idea that everything happens for a reason, as well as the idea that one need not fully regret one's past experience if it had to have been necessarily carried out as it was - or even the passionate exercise of asserting one's fate. Proponents of this view include Baruch Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche, among others. Also, many philosophers argue that determinism does not imply any kind of fatalism, as particular events hold no weight to its universality, and thus notions of "destiny" are irrelevant to its truth - which is that all events are inevitable, but not necessarily purposeful or toward a final cause. The above description on the diverse nature of discussions on determinism, then, generally breaks into two categories of consideration - that of the truth or falsity of determinism proper, and that of its consequences for life. The former usually involves argumentation within metaphysics, and the latter, that of its ethical, political, and existential relevance. "There are many determinisms, depending on what pre-conditions are considered to be determinative of an event or action." Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have sprung from diverse and sometimes overlapping motives and considerations. Some forms of determinism can be empirically tested with ideas from physics and the philosophy of physics. The opposite of determinism is some kind of indeterminism (otherwise called nondeterminism). Determinism is often contrasted with free will. Determinism often is taken to mean causal determinism, which in physics is known as cause-and-effect. It is the concept that events within a given paradigm are bound by causality in such a way that any state (of an object or event) is completely determined by prior states. This meaning can be distinguished from other varieties of determinism mentioned below. Other debates often concern the scope of determined systems, with some maintaining that the entire universe is a single determinate system and others identifying other more limited determinate systems (or multiverse). Numerous historical debates involve many philosophical positions and varieties of determinism. They include debates concerning determinism and free will, technically denoted as compatibilistic (allowing the two to coexist) and incompatibilistic (denying their coexistence is a possibility)." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le déterminisme est une notion philosophique selon laquelle la succession de chaque événement est déterminée en vertu du principe de causalité, du passé et des lois de la physique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Dominican
Ordre des Prêcheurs
"The Order of Preachers (Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum, postnominal abbreviation O.P.), also known as the Dominican Order, is a mendicant Catholic religious order founded by the Spanish priest Saint Dominic de Guzman in France, approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216. Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O.P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, and affiliated lay or secular Dominicans (formerly known as tertiaries, though recently there has been a growing number of associates who are unrelated to the tertiaries). Founded to preach the Gospel and to oppose heresy, the teaching activity of the order and its scholastic organisation placed the Preachers in the forefront of the intellectual life of the Middle Ages. The order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, currently Bruno Cadoré. In the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows, 917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, including 4,470 priests. A number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. * In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as "Black Friars" because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits. Dominicans were "Blackfriars", as opposed to "Whitefriars" (i.e., Carmelites) or "Greyfriars" (i.e., Franciscans). They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars (the Austin friars) who wear a similar habit. * In France, the Dominicans were known as "Jacobins" because their convent in Paris was attached to the Church of Saint-Jacques, now disappeared, on the way to Saint-Jacques-du-Haut-Pas, which belonged to the Italian Order of Saint James of Altopascio (St. James) Sanctus Iacobus in Latin. * Their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the "Domini canes", or "Hounds of the Lord"." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L’ordre des Prêcheurs ou des Frères Prêcheurs (O.P. — en latin : Ordo Fratrum Prædicatorum), plus connu sous le nom d’ordre dominicain, est un ordre catholique né sous l’impulsion de saint Dominique en 1215. Il appartient, comme l'ordre des Frères mineurs ou franciscains, à la catégorie des ordres mendiants. Proche de la population, il se différencie d'autres ordres qui ont pour vœux de s'isoler, comme l'ordre cistercien. Suivant la règle de saint Augustin, ainsi que ses propres Constitutions, en partie inspirées de celles des prémontrés (O.Præm), il s’est donné pour mission l’apostolat et la contemplation. Le Pape Jean-Paul II rappelait que depuis son origine, l'une des missions principales confiées à l'Ordre a été la proclamation de la vérité du Christ en réponse à l'hérésie (d'abord albigeoise, puis toutes les nouvelles formes d'hérésie manichéenne récurrente que le christianisme a dû affronter dès ses débuts, souvent centrées sur la négation de l'Incarnation). Sa devise est Veritas (la vérité). D'autres devises lui ont aussi été assignées, par exemple: « annoncer ce que nous avons contemplé » (contemplata aliis tradere), reprise de saint Thomas d'Aquin, ou encore « louer, bénir, prêcher » qui est une formule liturgique. Les dominicains sont des religieux mais pas des moines : ils ont la particularité de ne prononcer qu'un seul vœu, celui d'obéissance, dans les mains du maître de l'ordre (ou de son représentant), les vœux de pauvreté et de chasteté étant implicitement inclus. Ils ne font, par contre, pas vœu de stabilité comme les moines. Ils vivent dans des couvents et non dans des monastères. Leur vocation étant de prêcher, leurs couvents sont souvent situés dans de grandes villes.» (DBpedia, 2018)
eastern religions
"Eastern religions refers to religions originating in the Eastern world— East, South and Southeast Asia —and thus having dissimilarities with Western religions. This includes the East Asian (namely Taoism and Confucianism) and Indian (namely Hinduism and Buddhism) religious traditions, as well as animistic indigenous religions. This East-West religious distinction, just as with the East-West culture distinction, and the implications that arise from it, are broad and not precise. Furthermore, the geographical distinction has less meaning in the current context of global transculturation. While many Western observers attempt to distinguish between Eastern philosophies and religions, this is a distinction that does not exist in some Eastern traditions." (DBpedia, 2018)
ecumenism
œcuménisme
ecumenical
"Ecumenism refers to efforts by Christians of different church traditions to develop closer relationships and better understandings. The term is also often used to refer to efforts towards the visible and organic unity of different Christian churches in some form. The adjective ecumenical can also be applied to any interdenominational initiative that encourages greater cooperation among Christians and their churches, whether or not the specific aim of that effort is full, visible unity. The terms ecumenism and ecumenical come from the Greek οἰκουμένη (oikoumene), which means "the whole inhabited world", and was historically used with specific reference to the Roman Empire. The ecumenical vision comprises both the search for the visible unity of the Church (Ephesians 4:3) and the "whole inhabited earth" (Matthew 24:14) as the concern of all Christians. In Christianity the qualification ecumenical is originally (and still) used in terms such as "ecumenical council" and "Ecumenical Patriarch" in the meaning of pertaining to the totality of the larger Church (such as the Catholic Church or the Orthodox Church) rather than being restricted to one of its constituent local churches or dioceses. Used in this original sense, the term carries no connotation of re-uniting the historically separated Christian denominations, but presumes a unity of local congregations in a worldwide communion." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L’œcuménisme, parfois orthographié écuménisme, est un mouvement interconfessionnel qui tend à promouvoir des actions communes entre les divers courants du christianisme, en dépit de leurs différences doctrinales, avec pour objectif l’unité visible des chrétiens. Se développant à partir de la fin du XIXe siècle, l'œcuménisme se concrétise aujourd'hui par l'existence de divers accords, de nombreuses instances de dialogue, mais aussi par un certain nombre de réalisations concrètes, comme des entreprises de traduction commune des textes saints ou la semaine de prière commune pour l'unité des chrétiens. Parmi les pionniers de l’œcuménisme, on dénombre le patriarche orthodoxe Germain V de Constantinople, l’évêque anglican américain Charles Brent, le pasteur réformé hollandais Willem Visser 't Hooft, le prêtre catholique français Yves Congar ou encore l'archevêque luthérien suédois Nathan Söderblom et le laïc américain John Mott, qui ont tous deux reçu le prix Nobel de la paix pour cette activité.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Gnosticism
gnosticisme
"Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: γνωστικός gnostikos, "having knowledge", from γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge) is a modern term categorizing a collection of ancient religions whose adherents shunned the material world – which they viewed as created by the demiurge – and embraced the spiritual world. Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions that teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as knowledge, enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be reached by practicing philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers, entirely for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others. However, practices varied among those who were Gnostic. In Gnosticism, the world of the demiurge is represented by the underworld, which is associated with flesh, time, and more particularly, the imperfect ephemeral world. The world of God is represented by the upper world and is associated with the soul and perfection. The world of God is eternal and not part of the physical. It is impalpable and timeless. Gnosticism is primarily defined in a Christian context. In the past, some scholars thought that gnosticism predated Christianity and included pre-Christian religious beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be common to early Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, and Zoroastrianism (especially Zurvanism). The discussion of gnosticism changed radically with the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and led to a revision of older assumptions. To date, no pre-Christian gnostic texts have been found, and gnosticism as a unique and recognizable belief system is considered to be a second century (or later) development." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le gnosticisme est un système de pensée dualiste qui regroupe des doctrines variées du bassin méditerranéen et du Moyen-Orient qui se caractérisent généralement par l'affirmation que les êtres humains sont des âmes divines emprisonnées dans un monde matériel créé par un dieu mauvais ou imparfait appelé Démiurge ou Yahvé. Le mouvement connut son apogée au cours du IIe siècle. Le Démiurge, représenté sous la forme d'un archange, est considéré comme l'incarnation du mal ou comme un créateur bon mais imparfait. A l'opposé de cette divinité créatrice néfaste, il existe un autre être suprême plus éloigné (Dieu) incarnant le bien. Ainsi, aux yeux des adeptes du gnosticisme, l'homme est prisonnier du temps, de son corps, de son âme inférieure et du monde ; ils en concluent : « Je suis au monde, mais je ne suis pas de ce monde » ; de ce point de vue, le monde et l'existence dans le monde apparaîtront mauvais parce qu'ils sont mélange de deux natures et de deux mondes d'êtres contraires et inconciliables. Les adeptes du gnosticisme opposent l’Esprit et la matière et par conséquent Dieu et l’homme. Le gnosticisme ne doit pas être confondu avec la gnose chrétienne avec laquelle il est en totale opposition. Contrairement aux adeptes du gnosticisme, les gnostiques chrétiens défendus par les pères de l'Église croient que, par la connaissance de soi, l'homme peut trouver Dieu en lui. La matière (le corps, le monde, etc.) ne sont pas rejetés ; au contraire, l'acceptation de la matière participe à la transformation intérieure du fidèle et à sa divinisation (Theosis). D'inspiration chrétienne, le gnosticisme fut qualifié d'hérésie par les Pères de l'Église de ce qui allait devenir la « Grande Église » chrétienne. Irénée de Lyon, dans la deuxième moitié du IIe siècle dans sa Dénonciation et réfutation de la gnose au nom menteur (ou Contre les hérésies) en a laissé le témoignage antique le plus important et le nom qui leur restera. Il est possible que certains de ces groupes aient revendiqué le terme de gnostique. Mais celui-ci désigne également les Pères de l'Église qui les ont combattus. La confusion est restée dans l'historiographie gnoséologique, et le mot gnostique est encore employé pour désigner les adeptes dualistes du gnosticisme. Jusqu'au milieu du XXe siècle on ne disposait que de très peu de sources directes sur les gnostiques dualistes, celles-ci ayant été falsifiées ou détruites. Les principaux témoignages sur les adeptes du gnosticisme viennent de leurs détracteurs. La découverte en 1945 de la Bibliothèque de Nag Hammadi (avec une première traduction complète en 1977), dont l'évangile de Judas fait partie, a permis de renouveler la recherche sur le sujet. Les sectes gnostiques dualistes disparurent presque complètement à partir du IIIe siècle, mais leurs doctrines influencèrent d'autres religions comme le Manichéisme, le marcionisme et le catharisme.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Hermeticism
Hermétisme
Hermetic
Hermetism
"Hermeticism, also called Hermetism, is a religious, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily upon writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice Great"). These writings have greatly influenced the Western esoteric tradition and were considered to be of great importance during both the Renaissance and the Reformation. The tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine that affirms the existence of a single, true theology that is present in all religions and that was given by God to man in antiquity. Many writers, including Lactantius, Cyprian of Carthage,Augustine, Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, considered Hermes Trismegistus to be a wise pagan prophet who foresaw the coming of Christianity. St. Thomas Aquinas reported that Trismegistus arrived at something akin to the doctrine of the Trinity. An account of how Hermes Trismegistus received the name "Thrice Great" is derived from the The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, wherein it is stated that he knew the three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe. The three parts of the wisdom are alchemy, astrology, and theurgy. The Poimandres, from which Marsilio Ficino formed his opinion, states that "They called him Trismegistus because he was the greatest philosopher and the greatest priest and the greatest king." The Suda (10th century) states that "He was called Trismegistus on account of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine nature in the trinity." Much of the importance of Hermeticism arises from its connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 AD. The prominence that it gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put Nature to the test by means of experiments. Consequently, it was the practical aspects of Hermetic writings that attracted the attention of scientists. Isaac Newton placed great faith in the concept of an unadulterated, pure, ancient doctrine, which he studied vigorously to aid his understanding of the physical world. Many of Newton's manuscripts—most of which are still unpublished—detail his thorough study of the Corpus Hermeticum, writings said to have been transmitted from ancient times, in which the secrets and techniques of influencing the stars and the forces of nature were revealed." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Hermétisme désigne deux courants de pensée : * une doctrine ésotérique fondée sur des écrits (les Hermetica) de l'époque gréco-romaine attribués à l'inspiration de Hermès Trismégiste. * son développement dans la doctrine des alchimistes au Moyen Âge puis essentiellement à partir de la Renaissance. Antoine Faivre a suggéré d'employer deux termes distincts pour ces deux traditions de pensée. À côté du mot « hermétisme », servant à désigner le corps de doctrines des Hermetica ainsi que leurs gloses et exégèses, on peut employer le mot « hermésisme » pour désigner « un ensemble plus vaste de doctrines, de croyances et de pratiques, dont la nature s'est précisée à la Renaissance. Elles ne dépendent pas nécessairement de la tradition hermétique alexandrine, mais incluent aussi bien la kabbale chrétienne, le rosicrucisme, le paracelsisme, et d'une façon générale la plupart des formes que revêt l'ésotérisme occidental moderne ». Pour garder un minimum de cohérence, on ne saurait parler d'hermétisme en son sens second sans certaines conditions : affirmation de l'autorité d'Hermès ou d'Hermès Trismégiste ou de Thoth, ésotérisme (secret), inscription dans un courant historique précis (celui du Corpus Hermeticum, pour l'essentiel), tendance philosophique précise (centrée sur l'Un-Tout, la divinisation de l'esprit, les correspondances, l'alchimie mystique). L'hermétisme est une philosophie, une religion, un ésotérisme, ou une spiritualité en quête du salut, par l'esprit (comme le gnosticisme) mais supposant la connaissance analogique du cosmos. Le salut passe par la connaissance : se connaître, se reconnaître comme « étant fait de vie et de lumière », comme Dieu, en tant qu'intellect. Et cela constitue une contemplation, la vue du Bien, en sa « beauté impérissable, incompréhensible ».» (DBpedia, 2018)
Independent Methodist Connexion
Independent Methodist
"Their first chapels came into being in the north-west of England and met together for the first time in 1806 at Manchester. Annual Meetings and exchange of preachers constituted the only tangible link between the churches for many years. Of the early leading figures, the most prominent was Peter Phillips of Warrington; he is generally regarded as the denomination’s founding father. By trade he was a chairmaker, but as an unpaid minister and preacher he travelled a wide area of the country and was instrumental in the affiliation of many churches to the Connexion during a period of over 50 years. Though some of the early congregations used the title Independent Methodists, there were many other names: for example, Free Gospel Church, Christian Lay Church, Christian Brethren, Gospel Pilgrims and Quaker Methodists. It was not until 1898 that the Annual Meeting finally chose the name Independent Methodist." (DBpedia, 2018)
Methodist Episcopalian
African Methodist Episcopal Church
African Methodist Episcopal
"The Methodist Episcopal Church (MEC) was the first Methodist denomination founded in the United States. In the early 19th century, it was the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S. The Methodist Episcopal Church existed from 1784 until 1939, when it merged with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South and the Methodist Protestant Church to form the Methodist Church. In 1968, the Methodist Church merged with the Evangelical United Brethren Church to form the present-day United Methodist Church." (DBpedia, 2018)
monism
monisme
Monist
"Monism is the view that attributes oneness or singleness (Greek:μόνος) to a concept (e.g., existence). Substance monism is the philosophical view that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Another definition states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them (e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One). This is often termed priority monism, and is the view that only one thing is ontologically basic or prior to everything else. Another distinction is the difference between substance and existence monism, or stuff monism and thing monism. Substance monism posits that only one kind of stuff (e.g., matter or mind) exists, although many things may be made out of this stuff. Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing (e.g., the universe), which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le monisme est une conception métaphysique. C'est une doctrine défendant la thèse selon laquelle tout ce qui existe – l'univers, le cosmos, le monde – est essentiellement un tout unique, donc notamment constitué d'une seule substance. Le monisme s'oppose à toutes les philosophies dualistes, qui séparent monde matériel ou physique et monde psychique ou spirituel. Ainsi, le monisme s'oppose au dualisme platonicien ou cartésien.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Natural Religion
"Natural religion most frequently means the "religion of nature", in which God, the soul, spirits, and all objects of the supernatural are considered as part of nature and not separate from it. Conversely, it is also used in philosophy, specifically Roman Catholic philosophy, to describe some aspects of religion that are knowable apart from divine revelation (see Deism). Most authors consider natural religion as not only the foundation of monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam but also distinct from them. Natural religion is found universally among all peoples, often in such forms of shamanism and animism. They are still practiced in many parts of the world. The religions of Native American societies for example are considered natural religions." (DBpedia, 2018)
Obeah
"Obeah (sometimes spelled Obi, Obea, or Obia) is a term used in the West Indies to refer to folk magic, sorcery, and religious practices developed among West African slaves, specifically of Igbo origin. All s Obeah is similar to other Afro-American religions including Palo, Vodou, Santería, and Hoodoo. Obeah is practiced in Jamaica, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago and other Caribbean nations. Obeah is associated with both benign and malignant magic, charms, luck, and with mysticism in general. In some Caribbean nations, Obeah refers to folk religions of the African diaspora. In some cases, aspects of these folk religions have survived through syncretism with Christian symbolism and practice introduced by European colonials and slave owners. Casual observation may conclude that Christian symbolism is incorporated into Obeah worship, but in fact may represent clandestine worship and religious protest. During slavery, Obeah was directed against the European slave masters. However, with the end of slavery, Obeah became considered taboo, and the term has pejorative associations." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Obeah (ou appelé également Obi) est un mot d'origine africaine désignant la magie occulte. Le maître spirituel de la religion Obeah est appelé « l'homme Obeah », il est considéré comme un soigneur ou un conseiller (informateur). Il est celui qui aide les personnes possédées par les esprits ou qui ne trouvent pas de remède à leur maladie. C'est un esprit qui se manifeste également sous l'apparence d'une femme. Il peut vivre dans certaines eaux selon la tradition des descendants d'esclaves notamment à la Martinique. Ceux qui savent l'invoquer en lui offrant du lait, du sucre, du sel, de l'eau pimentée et bien d'autres potions peuvent obtenir des guérissons miraculeuses peu importe la maladie. Son action est quasiment instantanée selon ce que rapportent les pratiquants de son culte. Toutefois, il est extrêmement rare de trouver des initiés connaissant aujourd'hui ces lieux et on trouve encore moins d'adeptes capables de l'appeler du fond de la mer car un non renvoi dans les règles peut-être fatal pour l'opérant. Il a été rapporté dans les écrits de Peter Swontey en 1876 qu'on trouvait généralement dans les mers où il résidait des créateurs semblables à des "lézards" d'une allure très particulière. Il est dit que celui qui les péchait risquait sa vie et la récupération des maladies enfouies. Tout cela fait en tout cas partie du folklore des îles et ne saurait constituer une quelconque religion. * Portail des religions et croyances Portail des religions et croyances» (DBpedia, 2018)
Benedictine Order
Ordre de Saint-Benoît
Benedictine
"The Order of Saint Benedict (OSB; Latin: Ordo Sancti Benedicti), also known – in reference to the color of its members' habits – as the Black Monks, is a Catholic religious order of independent monastic communities that observe the Rule of Saint Benedict. Each community (monastery, priory or abbey) within the order maintains its own autonomy, while the order itself represents their mutual interests. The terms "Order of Saint Benedict" and "Benedictine Order" are, however, also used to refer to all Benedictine communities collectively, sometimes giving the incorrect impression that there exists a generalate or motherhouse with jurisdiction over them. Internationally, the order is governed by the Benedictine Confederation, a body, established in 1883 by Pope Leo XIII's Brief Summum semper, whose head is known as the Abbot Primate. Individuals whose communities are members of the order generally add the initials "OSB" after their names." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L’ordre de Saint-Benoît [OSB], plus connu sous le nom d’ordre des Bénédictins, est une fédération de monastères ayant, au cours de leur histoire, adopté la règle de saint Benoît. Ainsi saint Benoît de Nursie (480-547) en est-il considéré comme le fondateur (en 529). Ce n'est pas le plus ancien Ordre de l'Occident chrétien (cf. la Règle des moines de Saint-Augustin, la fondation de Ligugé par Saint Martin et de Saint-Victor de Marseille par Jean Cassien, et la laus perennis en 515 à l’abbaye de Saint-Maurice d'Agaune), mais c'est celui qui a connu le plus large succès ; ses membres suivent la règle de saint Benoît et appartiennent à la confédération bénédictine.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Pentecostalism
Pentecôtisme
Pentecostal Evangelists
"Pentecostalism or Classical Pentecostalism is a renewal movement within Protestant Christianity that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of God through the baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Book of Acts. Like other forms of evangelical Protestantism, Pentecostalism adheres to the inerrancy of scripture and the necessity of accepting Christ as personal Lord and Savior. It is distinguished by belief in the baptism in the Holy Spirit that enables a Christian to live a Spirit-filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement. Pentecostalism emerged in the early 20th century among radical adherents of the Holiness movement who were energized by revivalism and expectation for the imminent Second Coming of Christ. Believing that they were living in the end times, they expected God to spiritually renew the Christian Church thereby bringing to pass the restoration of spiritual gifts and the evangelization of the world. In 1900, Charles Parham, an American evangelist and faith healer, began teaching that speaking in tongues was the Bible evidence of Spirit baptism. The three-year-long Azusa Street Revival, founded and led by William J. Seymour in Los Angeles, California, resulted in the spread of Pentecostalism throughout the United States and the rest of the world as visitors carried the Pentecostal experience back to their home churches or felt called to the mission field. While virtually all Pentecostal denominations trace their origins to Azusa Street, the movement has experienced a variety of divisions and controversies. An early dispute centered on challenges to the doctrine of the Trinity. As a result, the Pentecostal Movement is divided between trinitarian and non-trinitarian branches. Comprising over 700 denominations and a large number of independent churches, there is no central authority governing Pentecostalism; however, many denominations are affiliated with the Pentecostal World Fellowship. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le pentecôtisme, appelé aussi mouvement de Pentecôte, est un courant chrétien évangélique issu d'un réveil démarré par les pasteurs américains Charles Fox Parham et William Joseph Seymour aux USA en 1906. Ce mouvement se caractérise par l'importance donnée à la Bible, à la nouvelle naissance, au baptême du Saint-Esprit, aux dons du Saint-Esprit, au baptême adulte en tant que témoignage volontaire, un esprit missionnaire, un engagement moral de vie ainsi que par l’autonomie locale des églises, la séparation de l’Église et de l’État. Selon les chiffres du Pew Research Center, en 2011, le mouvement recense 279 millions de croyants. Le pentecôtisme est similaire au mouvement charismatique, mais s’est développé plus tôt (du moins aux États-Unis) et s’est séparé du courant principal de l’Église. Les chrétiens charismatiques, du moins dans les premiers temps de leurs mouvements, tendaient à rester dans leurs dénominations respectives.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Proto-Zionism
proto-Zionist
"Proto-Zionism (or Forerunner of Zionism; Hebrew: מְבַשְרֵי הציונות, pronounced: Mevasrei ha-Tzionut) is a term attributed to the ideas of a group of men deeply affected by the idea of modern nationalism spread in Europe in the 19th century as they sought to establish a Jewish homeland in Israel. The central activity of these men was between the years 1860 to 1874, before the Zionist movement established practical (1881) and political Zionism (1896). It is for this reason that they are called precursors of Zionism. But while the 17th century raised the overall idea of "restoring the Jews to Israel naturally by settlement and political action" by Jews and non Jews, ideas therein in terms of an ultimate goal were missing. These ideas also did not unite people to action and relied on the national project and the State (the Jewish nation). Therefore, the figures behind these ideas are not considered as Heralds of Zionism. This group of men considered as proto-Zionists includes Rabbi Judah Bibas (1789-1852), Rabbi Judah ben Solomon Hai Alkalai (1798–1878), Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (1795–1874), and philosopher Moses Hess (1812–1875)." (DBpedia, 2018)
Rosicrucianism
Rose-Croix
Rosicrucian
"Rosicrucianism can refer to one of several things: * As a cultural movement, also referred to by historian Dame Frances Yates as the Rosicrucian Enlightenment, it arose in Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of the Rosicrucian Manifestos, which purported to announce the existence of a hitherto unknown esoteric order to the world and made seeking its knowledge attractive to many. * As the mysterious doctrine of the aforementioned order, it is allegedly "built on esoteric truths of the ancient past", which "concealed from the average man, provide insight into nature, the physical universe and the spiritual realm." The Manifestos do not elaborate extensively on the matter but clearly combine references to the Kabbalah, Hermeticism and the imagery of Christianity. The Rosicrucian Manifestos heralded a "Universal Reformation of Mankind", through a science allegedly kept secret for decades until the intellectual climate might receive it. Controversies have arisen on whether they were a hoax, whether the "order of the Rosy Cross" existed as described in the Manifestos, or whether the whole thing was a metaphor disguising a movement that really existed, but in a different form. In 1616, Johann Valentin Andreae famously designated it as a "ludibrium". By promising a spiritual transformation at a time of great turmoil, the Manifestos tempted many figures to seek esoteric knowledge. Seventeenth-century occult philosophers such as Michael Maier, Robert Fludd and Thomas Vaughan interested themselves in the Rosicrucian world view. According to historian David Stevenson, it was influential to Freemasonry as it was emerging in Scotland. In later centuries, many esoteric societies have claimed to derive from the original Rosicrucians. Rosicrucianism is symbolized by the Rosy Cross or Rose Cross." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La Rose-Croix est un ordre hermétiste chrétien légendaire dont les premières mentions remontent au début du XVIIe siècle en Allemagne. L'existence de l'ordre, et celle de son fondateur Christian Rosenkreutz, sont sujettes à controverse. Quoi qu'il en soit, à partir du XVIIIe siècle et jusqu'à aujourd'hui, de nombreux mouvements se sont réclamés de l'ordre de la Rose-Croix, ou se sont référés à la « tradition rosicrucienne » ou à l'« héritage de Christian Rosenkreutz ». Leurs membres sont appelés « les rosicruciens ». Le terme « Rose-Croix » désigne, dans leur langage, un état de perfection spirituelle et morale. Comme archétype de société secrète, immémoriale et toute-puissante, les rose-croix apparaissent dans la littérature « ésotérisante », souvent comme successeurs des chevaliers du Graal et des Templiers. À la fin des années 1990, une campagne de lutte contre les sectes en France conduit les commissions parlementaires à citer dans leurs rapports les mouvements rosicruciens et apparentés. La pertinence de ce classement a cependant été remise en cause par différents acteurs de la lutte contre les dérives sectaires. La liste de sectes émise est rendue caduque par une circulaire ministérielle et certains mouvements sont complètement réhabilités.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Shinto
Shintoïsme
"Shinto (神道 Shintō), also called kami-no-michi, is a Japanese religion. It focuses on ritual practices to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified "Shinto religion", but rather to a collection of native beliefs and mythology. Shinto today is a term that applies to the religion of public shrines devoted to the worship of a multitude of gods (kami), suited to various purposes such as war memorials and harvest festivals, and applies as well to various sectarian organizations. Practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods (8th to 12th centuries AD). The word Shinto ("way of the gods") was adopted, originally as Jindō or Shindō, from the written Chinese Shendao (神道, pinyin: shén dào), combining two kanji: "shin" (神), meaning "spirit" or kami; and "tō" (道), meaning a philosophical path or study (from the Chinese word dào). The oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as "spirits", "essences" or "gods", referring to the energy generating the phenomena. Since Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms: rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami. Kami and people are not separate; they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, yet only a small percentage of these identify themselves as "Shintoists" in surveys. This is because "Shinto" has different meanings in Japan: most of the Japanese attend Shinto shrines and beseech kami without belonging to an institutional "Shinto" religion, and since there are no formal rituals to become a member of "folk Shinto", "Shinto membership" is often estimated counting those who join organised Shinto sects. Shinto has 81,000 shrines and 85,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue (2003): In modern scholarship, the term is often used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals and practices. In these contexts, "Shinto" takes on the meaning of "Japan’s traditional religion", as opposed to foreign religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and so forth." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le shinto (神道, shintō, littéralement « la voie des dieux » ou « la voie du divin ») ou shintoïsme (/ʃintɔism/) est un ensemble de croyances datant de l'histoire ancienne du Japon, parfois reconnu comme religion. Elle mélange des éléments polythéistes et animistes. Il s'agit de la plus ancienne religion connue du Japon et particulièrement liée à sa mythologie. Le terme « shintō », lecture sino-japonaise, ou kami no michi, est apparu pour différencier cette vieille religion du bouddhisme « importé » de Chine au Japon au VIe siècle. Ses pratiquants seraient aujourd'hui plus de cent millions au Japon. Dans la mesure où il s'agit plus d'une culture propre à un pays que d'une religion concrète (on ne peut pas se convertir; on naît au Japon, on naît shinto), et qu'il n'y a aucun dogme écrit, le suffixe -isme peut être alors considéré comme illégitime voire incorrect. Ainsi, le terme shinto est préféré de manière générale[travail inédit ?].» (DBpedia, 2018)
Social Gospel
Évangile social
"The Social Gospel was a Protestant movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. Theologically, the Social Gospellers sought to operationalize the Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:10): "Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." They typically were post-millennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by human effort. The Social Gospel was more popular among clergy than laity. Its leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement, and most were theologically liberal, although a few were also conservative when it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders include Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch. Although most scholars agree that the Social Gospel movement peaked in the early 20th century, there is disagreement over when the movement began to decline, with some asserting that the destruction and trauma caused by World War I left many disillusioned with the Social Gospel's ideals while others argue that World War I stimulated the Social Gospelers' reform efforts. Theories regarding the decline of the Social Gospel after World War I often cite the rise of neo-orthodoxy as a contributing factor in the movement's decline. The Social Gospel, after World War II, along with neo-Thomism, influenced the formation of Christian Democracy political ideology. Many of the Social Gospel's ideas also reappeared in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. "Social Gospel" principles continue to inspire newer movements such as Christians Against Poverty." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'Évangile social est un mouvement intellectuel chrétien qui s'est engagé à lutter contre la pauvreté, l'inégalité, le crime, le travail des enfants, les tensions raciales, les bidonvilles, le manque d'hygiène, les écoles pauvres et le danger de la guerre. Les organisateurs du mouvement étaient pour la plupart des protestants post-millénaristes. Il a notamment eu un impact à l'époque du New Deal américain et au sein du Parti social-démocratique du Canada. Parmi les figures du mouvement, l'on peut nommer Dorothy Day, Tommy Douglas, Diane Drufenbrock, Washington Gladden, Adolf von Harnack, Jesse Jackson, Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles Clayton Morrison, Walter Rauschenbusch, Josiah Strong et James Shaver Woodsworth. * Portail du christianisme Portail du christianisme * Portail du protestantisme Portail du protestantisme * Portail de la société Portail de la société» (DBpedia, 2018)
Socinianism
socinianisme
"Socinianism (pronunciation: /səˈsɪniːənizm/) is a system of Christian doctrine named for Fausto Sozzini (Latin: Faustus Socinus), which was developed among the Polish Brethren in the Minor Reformed Church of Poland during the 16th and 17th centuries and embraced by the Unitarian Church of Transylvania during the same period. It is most famous for its Nontrinitarian Christology but contains a number of other unorthodox beliefs as well." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le socinianisme est un courant chrétien remontant à l'Italien Fausto Socin (Fausto Sozzini) qui refuse la doctrine chrétienne de la Trinité, et se présente comme libéral.» (DBpedia, 2018)
theism
théisme
theist
"Theism, in the field of comparative religion, is the belief in the existence of deities. In popular parlance, the term theism often describes the classical conception of god(s) that is found in the monotheistic and polytheistic religions. The term theism derives from the Greek theos meaning "god". The term theism was first used by Ralph Cudworth (1617–1688). In Cudworth's definition, they are "strictly and properly called Theists, who affirm, that a perfectly conscious understanding being, or mind, existing of itself from eternity, was the cause of all other things". Atheism is commonly understood as rejection of theism in the broadest sense of theism, i.e. the rejection of belief in a god or gods. The claim that the existence of any deity is unknown or unknowable is agnosticism." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Un théisme (du grec theos, dieu) est une croyance ou doctrine qui affirme l'existence d'au moins une divinité sans forcément que ces divinités aient encore une influence dans l'univers. Selon le théisme religieux, la relation de l'Homme avec Dieu passe par des intermédiaires (la religion). Selon le théisme philosophique, Dieu régit l'univers directement.Le théisme est opposé à l'athéisme. Parmi les formes de théisme, on peut notamment citer le panenthéisme, le monothéisme et le polythéisme. Et à côté de lui (car opposés à lui sur la question de la transcendance) le déisme et le panthéisme (parfois assimilé à un athéisme).» (DBpedia, 2018)
vitalism
vitalisme
vitalist
"Vitalism is a discredited scientific hypothesis that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things". Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to as the "vital spark", "energy" or "élan vital", which some equate with the soul. Although rejected by modern science, vitalism has a long history in medical philosophies: most traditional healing practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces. In the Western tradition founded by Hippocrates, these vital forces were associated with the four temperaments and humours; Eastern traditions posited an imbalance or blocking of qi or prana. One example of a similar notion in Africa is the Yoruba concept of ase." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le vitalisme est une tradition philosophique pour laquelle le vivant n'est pas réductible aux lois physico-chimiques. Elle envisage la vie comme de la matière animée d'un principe ou force vitale, qui s'ajouterait pour les êtres vivants aux lois de la matière. Selon cette conception, c'est cette force qui insufflerait la vie à la matière. En biologie, ce cadre théorique revient régulièrement dans l'histoire des sciences. Le terme désigne parfois la vision philosophique défendue naguère par l'École de Montpellier (voir Paul-Joseph Barthez (1734-1806)).» (DBpedia, 2018)
Zen
zen
Zen Buddhism
"Zen (Chinese: 禪; pinyin: Chán) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chan Buddhism. It was strongly influenced by Taoism and developed as a distinguished school of Chinese Buddhism. From China, Chan Buddhism spread south to Vietnam, northeast to Korea and east to Japan, where it became known as Japanese Zen. Zen emphasizes rigorous self-control, meditation-practice, insight into Buddha-nature, and the personal expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of others. As such, it de-emphasizes mere knowledge of sutras and doctrine and favors direct understanding through zazen and interaction with an accomplished teacher. The teachings of Zen include various sources of Mahayana thought, especially Yogachara, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras and the Huayan school, with their emphasis on Buddha-nature, totality, and the Bodhisattva-ideal. The Prajñāpāramitā literature and, to a lesser extent, Madhyamaka have also been influential in the shaping of the "paradoxical language" of the Zen-tradition." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le zen est une branche japonaise du bouddhisme mahāyāna qui met l'accent sur la méditation (dhyāna) à partir de la posture assise dite de zazen. Le mot « zen » est la romanisation de la prononciation japonaise du caractère chinois 禅 ou 禪, (« méditation silencieuse ») ; il est prononcé chán en mandarin et zeu en shanghaien. Ces différents termes remontent à une origine commune°: le mot sanskrit, dhyāna -en pâli, jhāna (« recueillement parfait »). Le zen se réfère au chan chinois, influencé par le taoïsme et, plus particulièrement, à la méditation de Siddhārtha Gautama lorsqu'il obtint l'éveil sous l'arbre de la Bodhi, il y a plus de 2 500 ans en Inde. On y trouve aussi l'influence coréenne du son.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrisme
"Zoroastrianism, or more natively Mazdayasna, is one of the world's oldest religions, "combining a cosmogonic dualism and eschatological monotheism in a manner unique […] among the major religions of the world." Ascribed to the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra), he exalted their deity of wisdom, Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), as its Supreme Being. Leading characteristics, such as messianism, heaven and hell, and free will are said to have influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity, and Islam. With possible roots dating back to the second millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism enters recorded history in the 5th-century BCE, and including a Mithraic Median prototype and Zurvanist Sassanid successor it served as the state religion of the pre-Islamic Iranian empires from around 600 BCE to 650 CE. Zoroastrianism was suppressed from the 7th century onwards following the Muslim conquest of Persia. Recent estimates place the current number of Zoroastrians at around 2.6 million, with most living in India and Iran. Besides the Zoroastrian diaspora, the older Mithraic faith Yazdânism is still practised amongst the Kurds. The religious philosophy of Zoroaster divided the early Iranian gods. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta. In Zoroastrianism, the creator Ahura Mazda, through the Spenta Mainyu (Good Spirit, "Bounteous Immortals") is an all-good "father" of Asha (Truth, “order, justice,") in opposition to Druj (“falsehood, deceit”) and no evil originates from "him". "He" and his works are evident to humanity through the six primary Amesha Spentas and the host of other Yazatas, through whom worship of Mazda is ultimately directed. Spenta Mainyu adjoined unto "truth" oppose the Spirit's opposite, Angra Mainyu and its forces born of Akəm Manah (“evil thinking”). Zoroastrianism has no major theological divisions, though it is not uniform; modern-era influences having a significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it. In Zoroastrianism, the purpose in life is to "be among those who renew the world...to make the world progress towards perfection". Its basic maxims include: * Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta, which mean: Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds. * There is only one path and that is the path of Truth. * Do the right thing because it is the right thing to do, and then all beneficial rewards will come to you also. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, which includes the writings of Zoroaster known as the Gathas, enigmatic poems that define the religion's precepts, and the Yasna, the scripture. The full name by which Zoroaster addressed the deity is: Ahura, The Lord Creator, and Mazda, Supremely Wise. He proclaimed that there is only one God, the singularly creative and sustaining force of the Universe. He also stated that human beings are given a right of choice, and because of cause and effect are also responsible for the consequences of their choices. Zoroaster's teachings focused on responsibility, and did not introduce a devil, per se. The contesting force to Ahura Mazda was called Angra Mainyu, or angry spirit. Post-Zoroastrian scripture introduced the concept of Ahriman, the Devil, which was effectively a personification of Angra Mainyu." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le zoroastrisme est une religion monothéiste de l'Iran ancien. Elle est une réforme du mazdéisme et tire son nom de son « prophète » ou fondateur Zarathoustra, dont le nom a été transcrit en Zoroastre par les Grecs (Ζωροάστρης, Zōroastrēs). Cette réforme est intervenue au cours du Ier millénaire av. J.-C.. La reforme religieuse de Zarathustra a pour principal effet d'orienter la religion mazdéenne vers le monothéisme au bénéfice du dieu Ahura Mazdâ (pehlevi : Ohrmazd) entouré d'un certain nombre d'entités. Ahura Mazda est seul responsable de l'ordonnancement du chaos initial, le créateur du ciel et de la Terre Le zoroastrisme a fait fonction de religion officielle de l'empire perse à trois reprises (sous le roi Hystaspès, sous les Achéménides, et sous les Sassanides jusqu'en 651, date de l'assassinat du dernier roi zoroastrien). Malgré l'arrivée de l'islam et les persécutions qui en découlèrent, il a réussi à se maintenir dans le patrimoine culturel iranien, afghan et d'Asie centrale. En effet, les Iraniens, les Kurdes et les Afghans, indépendamment de leur religion, accordent beaucoup d'importance aux fêtes zoroastriennes, en particulier celle de Nowruz, le nouvel an zoroastrien, célébré le 21 mars. Les zoroastriens, aussi appelés guèbres, respectent le feu comme symbole divin. Zoroastre prêchait un dualisme apparent, qui reposait sur le combat entre le Bien et le Mal, la Lumière et les Ténèbres. Le principe de Zoroastre est qu'il existe un esprit saint (Spenta Mainyu), fils d'Ahura Mazdā, et un esprit mauvais (Angra Mainyu) (pehlevi Ahriman), son jumeau, tous deux opposés car représentant le jour et la nuit, la vie et la mort. Ces deux esprits coexistent dans chacun des êtres vivants. Toutefois, le zoroastrisme est bel et bien un monothéisme, puisque seul Ahura Mazda conserve la prééminence céleste et que seul ce dernier triomphera du mal à la fin des temps.» (DBpedia, 2018)
social class
classe sociale
A subclass of cultural form, socialClass terms associate subjects with a specific social group, recognizing that such categories and their application to individuals are contested and can change over time. The association may be or have been embraced by the subject her/himself or attributed by others. Unlike Notes typed as social class context, which contain detailed discussion of a subject's class position, socialClass links to a word or phrase signifying a particular construction of class, with particular reference to earlier historical periods in the British Isles. Social class has been variously constructed and theorized, sometimes overlaps with occupation, and for women is further complicated by the fact that women were understood to take their social status from fathers and/or husbands. The terminology used here reflects quite basic social groupings that intersect with other factors such as wealth.
Une sous-catégorie de culturalForm, les termes de socialClass associent les sujets à des groupes sociaux spécifiques, en prenant en compte le fait que ces catégories et leur application aux individus sont contestables et peuvent changer au fil du temps. L'association à une classe sociale peut ou a pu être assumée par le sujet elle/lui-même ou attribuée par d'autres. Contrairement aux notes comme contexte social, qui contiennent les détails des discussions autour de le statut social du sujet, socialClass relie un mot ou une phrase référant à une classe spécifique qui renvoie à des périodes historiques antérieures spécifiques des Îles Britanniques. La notion de classe sociale a été construite et théorisée de diverses manières, et est d'autant plus complexe pour les femmes puisqu'elles étaient censées adopter le statut social de leur père et/ou de leur mari. La terminologie ici utilisée réfère à des groupes sociaux élémentaires qui se recoupent avec d'autres facteurs comme la richesse.
middle class
classe moyenne
middle-class
middling ranks
bourgeois
middle classes
middle ranks
urban middle class
middling sort
"The middle class is a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy. In Weberian socio-economic terms, the middle class is the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the working class and upper class. The common measures of what constitutes middle class vary significantly among cultures. A sizable and healthy middle-class can be viewed as a characteristic of a healthy society." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La classe sociale dite « classe moyenne » rassemble un ensemble de populations hétérogènes. Sur une échelle basée principalement sur le niveau de vie, la classe moyenne se situe « au-dessus » des classes pauvres (ou classe ouvrière) et « en dessous » des classes aisées (on parle aussi de classe supérieure ou élite, principalement le patronat et les cadres supérieurs). La question de sa définition exacte reste délicate et explique que l'on parle aussi des « classes moyennes » au pluriel avec une classe moyenne inférieure et une classe moyenne supérieure. Les critères majeurs de définition étant le niveau de vie, autrement dit les revenus mais cela peut également s'élargir au patrimoine, et l'appartenance ressentie à un statut social, il est patent que la notion varie suivant les pays et dans le temps.» (DBpedia, 2018)
working class
classe ouvrière
urban working class
working classes
working woman
rural working class parents
"The working class (also labouring class and proletariat) are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some white-collar jobs, and most service-work jobs. The working class only rely upon their earnings from wage labour, thereby, the category includes most of the working population of industrialized economies, of the urban areas (cities, towns, villages) of non-industrialized economies, and of the rural workforce. In Marxist theory and in socialist literature, the term working class usually is synonymous and interchangeable with the term proletariat, and includes all workers who expend either physical labour or mental labour (salaried knowledge workers and white-collar workers) to produce economic value for the owners of the means of production, the bourgeoisie. Since working-class wages can be very low, and because the state of unemployment is defined as a lack of independent means of generating an income and a lack wage-labour employment, the term working class also includes the lumpenproletariat, unemployed people who are extremely poor." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La notion de classe ouvrière se détermine par le sentiment d'appartenance à la catégorie sociale des ouvriers, qui ne disposent pas de la propriété des moyens de production et vendent leur force de travail.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Bohemianism
Bohème
alternative society of young artists, dropouts, and nonconformists
bohemian with upper-class connections
classlessness
"Bohemianism is the practice of an unconventional lifestyle, often in the company of like-minded people, with few permanent ties, involving musical, artistic, or literary pursuits. In this context, Bohemians may be wanderers, adventurers, or vagabonds. This use of the word bohemian first appeared in the English language in the nineteenth century to describe the non-traditional lifestyles of marginalized and impoverished artists, writers, journalists, musicians, and actors in major European cities." (DBpedia, 2018)
«La bohème est une façon de vivre au jour le jour dans la pauvreté mais aussi dans l’insouciance. Elle correspond à un mouvement littéraire et artistique du XIXe siècle, en marge du mouvement romantique plus « aristocratique ». C’est à la fois un style de vie qui rejette la domination bourgeoise et sa rationalité dans le cadre de la société industrielle, et la recherche d’un idéal artistique. Si l’expression avait connu un certain déclin à partir des Trente Glorieuses et des années 1960, période de la normalisation technocratique de Paris, l’expression « bourgeois bohème », ou « bobo », lui donne un certain regain. Le concept s’appuie évidemment sur la métaphore des « peuples bohémiens » ou des tziganes, qui étaient associés, au XIXe siècle, au mouvement romantique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Brahmin
Brahmane
"Brahmin is a varna (class) in Hinduism specialising as priests, teachers (acharya) and protectors of sacred learning across generations. Brahmins were traditionally responsible for religious rituals in temples, as intermediaries between temple deities and devotees, as well as rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists and warriors in ancient and medieval India." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Un brahmane (sanskrit : brāhmaṇa ; devanagari : ब्राह्मण ; lié au sacré) est un membre d'une des quatre castes en Inde (varṇa), regroupant notamment les prêtres, les sacrificateurs, les professeurs et les hommes de loi – ou plus largement les enseignants du Brahman comme l'indique clairement le titre de « brâhmane ». Le brahmane a pour devoir principal d'incarner le dharma, de le défendre, et de le faire respecter par les autres castes sacrées, afin de maintenir le bon ordre cosmique. La caste des brahmanes représente environ 6 % de la population de l'Inde. La vie du brahmane se divise en quatre stades (ashrama). Lors de son enfance, il reçoit une initiation (upanayana) qui représente une deuxième naissance, il devient alors dvija, « deux fois né ». Il n'y a jamais eu de tentation politique pour les brahmanes . Plus généralement, un brahmane est un homme de lettres disposant de connaissances importantes sur le monde ; il peut ainsi être appelé Pandit, qui est le titre le plus glorieux que peut avoir un brahmane du fait de sa large connaissance philosophique, scientifique ou artistique.» (DBpedia, 2018)
lower-middle class
classe moyenne inférieure
LOWER-MIDDLECLASS
genteel poverty
Employees, clerical workers, teachers, governesses. Note, however, that some teachers go into Professions (Mr. Chips from the 1939 film of that name) and women starting schools and then managing them also go into Professions.
Cette classe inclut "les employé•e•s, le personnel de bureau, les instituteur•ice•s et les gouvernantes. Il faut toutefois rappeler que certains des instituteur•ice•s entrent dans la catégorie des Professions (Mr. Chips dans le film du même nom (1939)) ainsi que les femmes qui ouvrent et dirigent les écoles.
entrepreneurial
entreprenariat
ENTREPRENEURIAL-INDUSTRIALIST
This class comprises the owners of large-scale enterprises such as factories, those who back such enterprises through investing money, or especially in the earlier historical periods when women were rarely economic agents, the wives and daughters of those who do, for instance, Elizabeth Montagu or Beatrice Webb.(Brown, 2006)
Cette classe comprend les propriétaires de grandes entreprises comme les usines, les individus qui soutiennent ces entreprises en y investissant des fonds, ou plus particulièrement les femmes et les filles de ces derniers, telles que Elizabeth Montagu ou Beatrice Webb, pour les périodes historiques anciennes au cours desquelles les les agents économiques étaient rarement des femmes.
professional
professionelle
PROFESSIONAL
professional classes
professional class
Doctors, lawyers, guild members, and those of high calling such as members of the clergy (Church of England) belong to this class. It implies social respect and intellectual requirements. Examples are Ann Hunter, who was married to a surgeon, and Virginia Woolf, daughter of an intellectual. (Brown, 2006)
Les docteur/res, avocat/es, membres de guilde, et les hautes appellations comme les membres du clergé (Église d'Angleterre) appartiennent à cette classe. Ces professions sont respectées socialement et requièrent des qualités intellectuelles. Ann Hunter, mariée à un chirurgien, et Virginia Woolf, fille d'intellectuel, en sont des exemples.
Overlaps with the upper-middle class class.
managerial
cadre
MANAGERIAL
This class refers to those whose "station in life comes from the fact that they are running something but not putting their money into it, for instance salaried civil service, bankers, or hospital administrators." (Brown, 2006)
Cette classe réfère à ceux dont «la situation sociale est dûe à l'administration d'une structure dans laquelle ils n'investissent pas leurs propres fonds, par exemple les salariés du service civique, les banquiers, les administrateurs d'hôpitaux.» (Brown, 2006)
nobility
noblesse
NOBILITY
royal
royalty
royal descent
royal, but not expected to become queen
This group refers to "those holding a title or of close family relation to someone holding a title (such as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Lord Byron, or Nancy Mitford)". (Brown, 2006)
Ce groupe réfère aux «personnes qui possèdent un titre, ou dont un membre de la famille proche possède un titre (telle que Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Lord Byron, ou Nancy Mitford)».
gentry
aristocratie
GENTRY
gentility
Membership in the gentry indicates property-ownership or relation to the same; property can be land or stocks and bonds. It "begins in the idea of owning arms and having a coat of arms, but is distinguished from nobility insofar as money is not necessarily related to blood and title. Disinterested gentlemen are of this class (i.e. Mr. Bennett in Jane Austen)."(Brown, 2006) Gentlewomen belong to this class, even though they may not themselves own much property but instead be supported by a father or brother, or they may be distressed, which is to say, impoverished gentlewomen, as in the case of Jane Eyre or Austen's Jane Fairfax.
L'appartenance à l'aristocratie indique la possession d'une propriété, sous la forme de terres, d'actions ou d'obligations. Elle «indique d'abord la possession d'armes et d'armoiries, mais se distingue de la noblesse car les biens financiers ne sont pas nécessairement liés à un sang ou un titre nobles. Les gentlemen désintéressés font partie de cette classe (i.e. Mr Bennett dans Jane Austen).» Les gentlewomen appartiennent également à cette classe, y compris dans le cas où elles sont entretenues par un père ou un frère au lieu d'être propriétaires, ou lorsqu'elles se retrouvent en difficulté, c'est-à-dire passées à un état de précarité financière, comme c'est le cas de Jane Eyre ou la Jane Fairfax de Austen.
indigent
indigent•e•s
INDIGENT
poverty
impoverished
This social class is "poor, destitute, unemployed," supported by charity, or on social security. (Brown, 2006)
Cette classe sociale inclut "les pauvres, les indigent•e•s, les chômeur•euse•s " dépendant des actions de charité ou des aides sociales.
shopkeepers
commerçants
SHOPKEEPERS
Typically applied to someone who "owns and runs a pub or shop," but not on the scale of an entrepreneur or industrialist. (Brown, 2006)
Habituellement attribué à quelqu'un qui «possède et tient un bar ou une boutique», mais dont l'activité est plus réduite que celle d'un entrepreneur ou d'un industriel.
paysanne yeoman
YEOMAN-FARMER
yeoman
Members of this historic class "own[ed] just enough land to support themselves if they did most of the work themselves." Examples include Elizabeth Ham and Mary Webb. (Brown, 2006)
Les membres de cette classe historique «posséd[aient] juste assez de terre pour subvenir à leurs besoins, à condition qu'ils fassent eux-mêmes la plus grande partie du travail». Elizabeth Ham et Mary Webb en sont des exemples.
upper-middle class
classe moyenne supérieure
The upper middle class is a sociological concept referring to the social group constituted by higher status members of the middle class. This is in contrast to the term "lower middle class", which is used for the group at the opposite end of the middle class stratum, and to the broader term "middle class". There is considerable debate as to how the upper middle class might be defined. According to sociologist Max Weber the upper middle class consists of well-educated professionals with graduate degrees and comfortable incomes.
La classe moyenne supérieure est une classe sociale qui regroupe les individus de la classe moyenne dont les revenus sont les plus élevés (en France, supérieurs à 30 000 euros par an). En tant que membres de la classe moyenne, leurs revenus restent inférieurs à ceux de l'élite entrepreneuriale et des professions libérales. On y trouve surtout des cadres, parfois des artisans indépendants. La classe moyenne supérieure a tendance à se confondre avec la petite bourgeoisie, on y trouve par exemple un actionnariat développé ainsi qu'un niveau d'éducation élevé. Depuis les crises économiques des années 1970, la classe moyenne supérieure se distingue de plus en plus de la fausse jumelle, la classe moyenne inférieure ; la première étant caractérisée par son ascension sociale, l'autre par son déclassement.
This term is a CWRC-specific addition not in the original Orlando tag set.
Overlaps with the professional class.
slave or forced labourer
serf
serfs
bonded labourer
The category of slaves and forced labourers covers the spectrum from chattel slaves through indentured servants to serfs, including those bonded to servitude with no hope of paying their debt.
artisan
artisane qualifiée
SKILLEDCRAFTPERSON-ARTISAN
This class includes such trades as "goldsmith, tailor, shoemaker, milliner, and dressmaker." (Brown, 2006)
Celle classe inclut des métiers tels que tailleur/euse, orfèvre, cordonnier/ère, chapelier/ère et couturier/ère.
urban unskilled
ouvrier non qualifié
URBAN-INDUSTRIALUNSKILLED
This class includes factory workers and workers in urban or large-scale industries without defined trades or professional qualifications, and those in low-wage and low-status service sector jobs, such as the restaurant or fast-food industry, in industrial or post-industrial societies. (Brown, 2006)
Cette classe inclut les ouvriers/ères d'usine et les travailleurs/euses des grandes industries ou des industries urbaines, qui ne possèdent ni profession ni qualification définie. Elle renvoie également aux emplois du secteur des services avec des salaires et des statuts faibles, comme la restauration ou l'industrie du fast-food dans les sociétés industrielles et postindustrielles.
rural unskilled
ouvrière agricole
RURAL-UNSKILLED
This class generally indicates farm laborers, mostly male and in earlier periods, and includes migrant farm workers. (Brown, 2006)
Cette classe renvoie aux travailleurs/euses agricoles, généralement des hommes, et concerne des périodes historiques plus reculées. Elle inclut aussi les fermiers/ères migrants/es.
domestique
SERVANTS
Domestic servants typically live in the home with the family or institution that employs them, although the lowest class of servants might work only casually and hence not receive room and board. This type of labour, very common before the twentieth century, is distinct from that of service positions such as shop assistants, flight attendants, and restaurant workers. (Brown, 2006)
Les domestiques vivent normalement au sein du foyer de la famille ou de l'institution qui les emploie, même si ceux des classes les plus inférieures n'y travaillent que ponctuellement et ne reçoivent donc ni toit ni pension. Ce type d'emploi, très répandu avant le 20ème siècle, est différent des postes rattachés au tertiaire tels que vendeur/se, personnel de cabine ou serveur/se.
political affiliation
appartenance politique
This subclass of CulturalForm indicates affiliations, connections and associations which designate a person's political involvement. These affiliations can be both formal connections to a party or organisation and informal political positions held by the writer. Political affiliations are defined broadly and include things like "against capital punishment" or "strong supporter of the Empire" in addition to more straightforward affiliations such as "marxist" or "conservative". Political affiliations can be multiple, sometimes contradictory, and may change over time.
Cette sous-classe de forme culturelle indique les appartenances, les connexions et les associations qui font partie de l'engagement politique d'une personne. Elles renvoient aussi bien aux connexions formelles avec un parti ou une organisation qu'aux autres partis pris politiques informels de l'auteur·e. Les appartenances politiques sont définies au sens large et incluent des exemples comme « lutte contre la peine de mort » ou « fervent·e défenseur·se de l'Empire » en plus d'appartenance plus directes telles que « marxiste » ou « conservateur·ice ». Les appartenances politiques peuvent être multiple, parfois contradictoires ou en tension, et peuvent changer au cours du temps.
contrary to
contraire à
Catholic emancipation
émancipation des catholiques
"Catholic emancipation or Catholic relief was a process in the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the late 18th century and early 19th century that involved reducing and removing many of the restrictions on Roman Catholics introduced by the Act of Uniformity, the Test Acts and the penal laws. Requirements to abjure (renounce) the temporal and spiritual authority of the Pope and transubstantiation placed major burdens on Roman Catholics. From the death on 14 January 1766 of James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of the deposed James II of England and Ireland (also James VII of Scotland) and pretender to the English, Scottish and Irish thrones since 1701, the papacy recognised the Hanoverian dynasty as lawful rulers of England, Scotland and Ireland, 52 years after it had taken power, and thereafter the penal laws started to be dismantled. The most significant measure was the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, which removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholicism in the United Kingdom." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'émancipation des catholiques (irlandais : Fuascailt na gCaitliceach), fut un processus qui se déroula en Grande-Bretagne et en Irlande à la fin du XVIIIe siècle et au début du XIXe siècle. Il consista à réduire ou à supprimer de nombreuses restrictions, frappant les catholiques, introduites par l'Act of Uniformity, le Test Act, et les Lois pénales. La nécessité d'abjurer l'autorité spirituelle et temporelle du pape, ainsi que la transsubstantiation, avait accablé lourdement les catholiques. Après la mort de Jacques François Stuart en janvier 1766, et après un silence de soixante-dix ans, le Saint-Siège reconnut la Maison de Hanovre comme la dynastie régnante légitime en Angleterre, en Écosse et en Irlande. Peu après, les Lois pénales commencèrent à être démantelées.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Home rule
Home Rule
Home Rule movement
"Home rule is the power of a constituent part (administrative division) of a state to exercise such of the state's powers of governance within its own administrative area that have been decentralized to it by the central government. In the United Kingdom, it traditionally referred to self-government, devolution or independence of its constituent nations—initially Ireland, and later Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. In the United States and other countries organised as federations of states, the term usually refers to the process and mechanisms of self-government as exercised by municipalities, counties, or other units of local government at the level below that of a federal state (e.g., US state, in which context see special legislation). It can also refer to the similar system under which Greenland and the Faroe Islands are associated with Denmark. Home rule is not, however, comparable with federalism. Whereas states in a federal system of government (e.g., Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland, Brazil, Ethiopia and the United States of America) have a guaranteed constitutional existence, a devolved home rule system of government is created by ordinary legislation and can be reformed, or even abolished, by repeal or amendment of that ordinary legislation. A state legislature may, for example, create home rule for a county or parish (or its townships), so that a county commission or board of supervisors may have jurisdiction over its unincorporated areas, including important issues like zoning. (Without this, a US county is simply an extension of state government.) The legislature can also establish or eliminate municipal corporations, which have home rule within town or city limits through the city council. The state government could also abolish counties/townships, or their governments, according to the state constitution and state laws." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le Home Rule est un projet visant à donner une autonomie interne à l'Irlande, tout en restant sous la tutelle de la couronne britannique. En 1870, Isaac Butt crée la Home Government Association pour la promotion de l'autonomie de l'île, et l'institution d'un parlement à Dublin, dans le cadre du Royaume-Uni ; en 1873 elle devient la Home Rule League. Cette démarche reprend le combat soutenu notamment par Daniel O'Connell.» (DBpedia, 2018)
New Unionism
New Trade Unionism
"New Unionism is a term which has been used twice in the history of the labour movement, both times involving moves to broaden the trade union agenda. Ben Tillett was a prominent leader of the London Dock strike of 1889. He formed the Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Labourers' Union in 1889, which had support from skilled workers. Its 30,000 members won an advance in wages and working conditions." (DBpedia, 2018)
paternalism
paternalisme
paternalist
"Paternalism is behavior by an organization or state that limits some person or group's liberty or autonomy for what is presumed to be that person's or group's own good. Paternalism can also imply that the behavior is against or regardless of the will of a person, or also that the behavior expresses an attitude of superiority. The word paternalism is from the Latin pater “father” via the adjective paternus “fatherly”; paternalism should be though distinguished from patriarchy. Some, such as John Stuart Mill, think paternalism to be appropriate towards children: "It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that this doctrine is meant to apply only to human beings in the maturity of their faculties. We are not speaking of children, or of young persons below the age which the law may fix as that of manhood or womanhood." Paternalism towards adults is sometimes thought to treat them as if they were children." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le paternalisme est une doctrine politique qui définit comme moralement souhaitable qu'un agent privé ou public puisse décider à la place d'un autre pour son bien propre. Cette doctrine s'oppose au libéralisme. Par exemple, quand l’État ou un employeur (comme IBM) interdisait aux agents de fumer ou de boire sur les lieux de travail bien qu'aucune loi n'existe encore sur le sujet, il menait une politique paternaliste. Le point de vue libéral serait qu'on ne doit pas chercher à faire le bien d'un individu contre son gré, mais le libéralisme va rarement jusqu'à réclamer la mise en vente libre des drogues dures, ce qui indique quelques nuances. Le nom de paternalisme désigne cette tendance à se conduire comme un père envers des personnes même majeures, sur lesquelles on exerce ou souhaite exercer une autorité. Cette attitude peut être volontaire, comme involontaire et inconsciente. Le terme est utilisé dans des domaines comme l'économie, la morale ou la politique. On parle alors de paternalisme économique, moral, politique, social etc. L'attitude paternaliste peut être perçue comme infantilisant ceux qu'elle vise, en particulier pour les personnes n'ayant pas intériorisé les notions d'auto-discipline, ni d'autorité. À l'inverse, le fait de considérer celles-ci a priori comme infantiles induira, volontairement ou non, une tendance paternaliste envers elles.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Italian unification
Risorgimento
"Italian unification (Italian: Unificazione italiana), or the Risorgimento ([risordʒiˈmento], meaning the Resurgence or revival), was the political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. Despite a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and end of this period, many historians and scholars agree that the process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and the end of Napoleonic rule, and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. (Some of the terre irredente did not, however, join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I with the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Some nationalists see the 3 November 1918 Armistice of Villa Giusti as the completion of unification.)" (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le Risorgimento (mot italien signifiant « renaissance » ou en français « résurrection ») est la période de l’histoire de l'Italie dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle au terme de laquelle les rois de la maison de Savoie unifient la péninsule italienne par l'annexion de la Lombardie, de Venise, du royaume des Deux-Siciles, du duché de Modène et Reggio, du grand-duché de Toscane, du duché de Parme et des États pontificaux au royaume de Sardaigne. Jusqu’au milieu du XIXe siècle, on pouvait considérer que, selon la définition de Metternich, l’Italie n’était rien de plus qu’une « expression géographique ». L’unification italienne est donc un événement majeur de l’histoire de l’Europe dans la mesure où elle a transformé l’expression géographique en réalité politique. Mais si tout le monde est d’accord pour dire que l’unification a constitué un tournant dans les relations internationales, les interprétations divergent en revanche quand il s’agit de le replacer dans son contexte. Certains historiens voient dans cette naissance de l’Italie un phénomène spécifiquement italien, sans lien réel avec les conjonctures de l’époque. D’autres au contraire, estiment que l’unification italienne s’inscrit dans un processus commun, non seulement à toutes les nations d’Europe, mais encore à celles du monde entier : une Révolution universelle venue bouleverser les structures sociales que le temps rend nécessairement obsolètes. La première phase du Risorgimento (1848-1849) voit le développement de différents mouvements révolutionnaires et une guerre contre l’Empire d'Autriche, mais se conclut par un retour au statu quo. La seconde phase 1859-1860 fait considérablement avancer le processus d’unification et se conclut par la proclamation du Royaume d’Italie le 17 mars 1861. L’unification est ensuite achevée avec l’annexion de Rome, capitale de l’État de l’Église, le 20 septembre 1870.» (DBpedia, 2018)
isolationism
isolationnisme
"Isolationism is the foreign policy position that a nations' interests is best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance. One possible motivation for limiting international involvement is to avoid being drawn into dangerous and otherwise undesirable conflicts. There may also be a perceived benefit from avoiding international trade agreements or other mutual assistance pacts." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'isolationnisme est une doctrine de politique extérieure qui combine un non-interventionnisme militaire et une politique de patriotisme économique (protectionnisme).» (DBpedia, 2018)
Black nationalism
nationalisme Noir
"Black nationalism (BN) advocates a racial definition (or redefinition) of national identity. There are different indigenous nationalist philosophies but the principles of all Black nationalist ideologies are unity and self-determination—that is, separation, or independence, from European society." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le nationalisme noir, souvent désigné sous le terme anglais Black nationalism, est un terme générique regroupant une série d'idéologies affirmant l'unité fondamentale des populations africaines ou d'origine africaine. Le « nationalisme noir » ne doit pas être confondu avec des idéologies ou attitudes nationalistes spécifiques à certains groupe de population, qui affirment au contraire leur spécificité par rapport à l'ensemble des autres populations noires. Il a trouvé ses expressions dominantes en Afrique et dans les deux Amériques, et notamment aux États-Unis, où son histoire se confond avec celle de l'UNIA de Marcus Garvey et du Black Panther Party. Dans les années 1970, le Black feminism qui mêlait revendications féministes et Black nationalism a fait son apparition, bouleversant la scène du féminisme américain. En Afrique du Sud, il regroupe des mouvements proches du Black Consciousness Movement, tel que l'AZAPO, un parti politique fondé en 1978. Le nationalisme noir est né du sentiment d'un destin commun difficile, ici du fait de l'esclavage des noirs et de la colonisation européenne. Il se distingue largement des formes classiques de nationalisme qui militent pour la création ou la défense d'un État-nation : le nationalisme noir, mouvement hétérogène, peut prôner par exemple le séparatisme (ainsi le Black Panther Party aux États-Unis) ou, au contraire, le panafricanisme, c'est-à-dire l'union des Africains dans un même ensemble politique, projet plus proche du panaméricanisme.» (DBpedia, 2018)
appeasement
politique d'apaisement
"Appeasement in a political context is a diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an enemy power in order to avoid conflict. The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of the British Prime Ministers Ramsay Macdonald, Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain towards Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy between 1935 and 1939. Their policies have been the subject of intense debate for more than seventy years among academics, politicians and diplomats. The historians' assessments have ranged from condemnation for allowing Adolf Hitler's Germany to grow too strong, to the judgment that they had no alternative and acted in their country's best interests. At the time, these concessions were widely seen as positive, and the Munich Pact concluded on 30 September 1938 among Germany, Britain, France, and Italy prompted Chamberlain to announce that he had secured "peace for our time."" (DBpedia, 2018)
«La politique d'apaisement dans les relations internationales vise à éviter la guerre en faisant des concessions à l'ennemi.» (DBpedia, 2018)
Malthusianism
Malthusianisme
neo-Malthusianism
"Malthusianism is a school of ideas derived from the political/economic thought of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, as laid out in his 1798 writings, An Essay on the Principle of Population, which describes how unchecked population growth is exponential while the growth of the food supply was expected to be arithmetical. Malthus believed there were two types of "checks" that could then reduce the population, returning it to a more sustainable level. He believed there were "preventive checks" such as moral restraints (abstinence, delayed marriage until finances become balanced), and restricting marriage against persons suffering poverty or defects. Malthus believed in "positive checks", which lead to 'premature' death: disease, starvation, war, resulting in what is called a Malthusian catastrophe. The catastrophe would return population to a lower, more "sustainable", level. The term has been applied in different ways over the last two hundred years, and has been linked to a variety of other political and social movements, but almost always refers to advocates of population control. Neo-Malthusianism generally refers to people with the same basic concerns as Malthus, who advocate population control programs, to ensure resources for current and future populations. In Britain the term Malthusian can also refer more specifically to arguments made in favour of preventive birth control, hence organizations such as the Malthusian League. Neo-Malthusians seem to differ from Malthus's theories mainly in their enthusiasm for contraception. Malthus, a devout Christian, believed that "self-control" (abstinence) was preferable to artificial birth control. In some editions of his essay, Malthus did allow that abstinence was unlikely to be effective on a wide scale, thus advocating the use of artificial means of birth control as a solution to population "pressure". Modern "neo-Malthusians" are generally more concerned than Malthus was, with environmental degradation and catastrophic famine than with poverty. Many critics believe that the basis of Malthusian theory has been fundamentally discredited in the years since the publication of Principle of Population, often citing major advances in agricultural techniques and modern reductions in human fertility. Many modern proponents believe that the basic concept of population growth eventually outstripping resources is still fundamentally valid, and "positive checks" are still likely in humanity's future if there is no action to curb population growth. Malthusian terms can carry a pejorative connotation indicating excessive pessimism, misanthropy or inhumanity. Some proponents of Malthusian ideas believe that Malthus's theories have been widely misunderstood and misrepresented; these proponents believe his reputation for pessimism and inhumanity is ill deserved. Malthusian ideas have attracted criticism from a diverse range of differing schools of thought, including Marxists and socialists, libertarians and free market enthusiasts, social conservatives, feminists and human rights advocates." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le malthusianisme est une politique prônant la restriction démographique, inspirée par les travaux de l'économiste britannique Thomas Malthus (1766–1834). Le terme est utilisé pour la première fois par Pierre-Joseph Proudhon en 1849. À l'origine doctrine hostile à l'accroissement de la population d'un territoire ou d'un État et préconisant la restriction volontaire de la natalité, le mot « malthusianisme » désigne aussi par extension toute attitude réservée devant la vie et le développement.» (DBpedia, 2018)
militarism
militarisme
militarist
"Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; examples of militarist states include North Korea, Nazi Germany, United States of America and Soviet Russia. It may also imply the glorification of the military and of the ideals of a professional military class and the "predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state" (see also: stratocracy and military junta). Militarism has been a significant element of the imperialist or expansionist ideologies of several nations throughout history. Prominent examples include the Ancient Assyrian Empire, the Greek city state of Sparta, the Roman Empire, the Aztec nation, the Kingdom of Prussia, the Habsburg/Habsburg-Lorraine Monarchies, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Empire of Japan, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (which would later become part of the Soviet Union), the Italian Empire during the reign of Benito Mussolini, Nazi Germany, Israel, United States of America, and the French empire under Napoleon. After World War II, militarism appeared in many of the post-colonial nations of Asia (i.e. North Korea, Pakistan, Burma and Thailand) and Africa (i.e. Liberia, Nigeria and Uganda)." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le militarisme est une idéologie politique, ou du moins un courant de pensée, qui prône la primauté de la force militaire dans les relations interétatiques et dans l'organisation intraétatique. Il a connu de nombreuses incarnations au cours de l'Histoire. Ses tenants affirment que l'armée est le meilleur instrument au service de la nation.» (DBpedia, 2018)
anti-masonry
antimaçonnisme
anti-masonic
"Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) is defined as "avowed opposition to Freemasonry". However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'antimaçonnisme (ou antimaçonnerie) désigne la critique, l'opposition et l'hostilité manifestées à l’encontre de la franc-maçonnerie et de ses membres. Souvent liées à l’Église catholique, qui condamna à plusieurs reprises la franc-maçonnerie en tant que telle depuis la bulle pontificale In eminenti apostolatus specula en 1738, les condamnations au sujet de la société initiatique se sont exprimées sous des natures et formes diverses. L'acceptation globale de l'idéologie démontre que la distribution des préjugés fut variables au sein des classes sociales et selon les appartenances religieuses. En tant que phénomène sociétal, l'antimaçonnisme constitue une réalité historique et sociale qui puise sa source dans plusieurs strates de l'histoire. La chronologie du phénomène rapporte un ensemble de faits concentrés géographiquement en occident. Les politiques et publications antimaçonniques décrient généralement des intentions et des actions de conspiration liées à un secret, telles les théories du complot maçonnique. Les hostilités furent nourries de tout temps par de multiples interprétations spéculatives telles que l’immixtion dans le pouvoir politique et judiciaire, les hauts grades, l'influence déterminante et l’insertion de symboles dans la vie civile qui en résultent. Dans une optique plus rationnelle, l'antimaçonnisme découle d'une opposition aux idées progressistes et libérales issues du siècle des Lumières époque où certains philosophes de renom ont adhéré à l'école de pensée. À la suite notamment des ouvrages de l’abbé Barruel, qui défend la thèse que la Révolution française résulterait d’un complot maçonnique, l’antimaçonnisme devient progressivement une doctrine qui se développe dans les milieux catholiques ultramontains et chez les penseurs de la contre-révolution. Au XXe siècle, si la franc-maçonnerie est jugée « contre-révolutionnaire » par l'Internationale communiste qui l'interdit à ses partisans, la défiance à son encontre est reprise par l’extrême droite qui l'associe au discours antisémite par une dénonciation de « complot judéo-maçonnique », soupçonnant l’existence d’un faisceau d’intérêts communs. Les régimes dictatoriaux en général de par le monde et la Seconde Guerre mondiale furent les théâtres des persécutions les plus sévères à l’égard de la franc-maçonnerie.» (DBpedia, 2018)
High Church Party
Haute Église
High-Church party
"The term "high church" refers to beliefs and practices of ecclesiology, liturgy, and theology, generally with an emphasis on formality and resistance to "modernisation". Although used in connection with various Christian traditions, the term originated in and has been principally associated with the Anglican/Episcopal tradition, where it describes Anglican churches using a number of ritual practices associated in the popular mind with Roman Catholicism. The opposite is low church. Contemporary media discussing Anglican churches tend to prefer evangelical to "low church", and Anglo-Catholic to "high church", though the terms do not exactly correspond. Other contemporary denominations that contain high church wings include some Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Methodist churches." (DBpedia, 2018)
«Le mouvement Haute Église (High Church) est un courant de l'anglicanisme né dans l'Église d'Angleterre lors de la Restauration anglaise (1660-1688). Il désigne alors les fidèles qui militent pour l'observation rigide et précise des règles liturgiques sur la prière et le jeûne, et qui défendent la religion établie contre les tendances à la poursuite de la Réforme. Il tire son inspiration des politiques d'uniformisation religieuse qui avaient été mises en œuvre par l'archevêque de Cantorbéry William Laud entre 1633 et 1640. Le mouvement Haute Église s'oppose au courant latitudinaire, qui souhaite que l'Église marque plus d'ouverture et de compréhension pour les non-conformistes. Par dérision, le mouvement latitudinaire sera qualifié de « Basse Église ». Le livre de la prière commune est fortement associé à la tradition de la Haute Église. Dans l'usage actuel, la Haute Église se confond largement avec l'anglo-catholicisme, un mouvement déterminé à développer la liturgie et le dogme dans une direction voisine de celle de l'Église catholique romaine. Ce courant est né au XIXe siècle avec le mouvement d'Oxford d'Edward Bouverie Pusey, John Henry Newman et John Keble. Cependant, il existe encore dans l'anglicanisme un courant « Haute Église » qui ne se considère pas comme anglo-catholique. L'expression « Haute Église » est parfois également employée pour qualifier des courants aux conceptions voisines dans d'autres confessions protestantes (notamment luthérienne, comme la Högkyrklighet en Suède).» (DBpedia, 2018)
Philosophical Radicals
Philosophic Radicals
"The Philosophical Radicals was a philosophically-minded group of English political radicals in the nineteenth century inspired by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and James Mill (1773–1836). Individuals within this group included Francis Place (1771–1854), George Grote (1794–1871), Joseph Parkes (1796–1865), John Arthur Roebuck (1802–1879), Charles Buller (1806–1848), John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), Edward John Trelawny (1792–1881), and William Molesworth (1810–1855). Several became Radical members of Parliament, and the group as a whole attempted to use the Westminster Review to exert influence on public opinion. They rejected any philosophical or legal naturalism and furthered Jeremy Bentham's utilitarian philosophy. Utilitarianism as a moral philosophy argues that maximizing happiness should be the moral standard by which our actions should be measured. It thereby stands in contrast to the rationalistic ethics of Immanuel Kant as well as to the convictions of idealism, amongst others." (DBpedia, 2018)
High Toryism
High Tory
"High Toryism is a term used in Britain, Canada, and elsewhere to refer to old traditionalist conservatism which is in line with the Toryism originating in the 17th century. High Tories and their worldview were sometimes at odds with the progressive elements of the Conservative Party in these countries at present. Historically, the late eighteenth-century conservatism derived from the Whig Edmund Burke and William Pitt the Younger marks a watershed from the "higher" or legitimist Toryism that was allied to Jacobitism. High Toryism has been described as neo-feudalist in its preference for a hierarchical organisation of society over utopian equality, as well for holding the traditional gentry as a higher cultural benchmark than the bourgeoisie and those who have attained their position through commerce. Economically, High Tories tend to prefer a paternalistic Tory corporatism over the neo-liberalism which took ahold in the 1980s." (DBpedia, 2018)
Yorkist
Maison d'York
«La maison d'York est une branche cadette de la dynastie Plantagenêt qui a combattu la maison de Lancastre lors de la guerre des Deux-Roses. Son emblème est la rose blanche.» (DBpedia, 2018)
opposition politics
opposition (politique)
Opposition
"In politics, the opposition comprises one or more political parties or other organized groups that are opposed to the government (or, in American English, the administration), party or group in political control of a city, region, state or country. It is the party that goes against another party. The degree of opposition varies according to political conditions - for example, across authoritarian and liberal systems where opposition may be repressed or welcomed." (DBpedia, 2018)
«En politique, l'opposition désigne l'ensemble des mouvements qui contestent les décisions des détenteurs du pouvoir. Dans un régime représentatif, l'opposition parlementaire est l'ensemble des partis qui ne forment pas la majorité parlementaire. Dans le système anglo-saxon, en particulier dans le système de Westminster, l’opposition officielle est constituée par le premier parti d’opposition au parlement. * Portail de la politique Portail de la politique» (DBpedia, 2018)
separatism
indépendantisme
"A common definition of separatism is that it is the advocacy of a state of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. While it often refers to full political secession, separatist groups may seek nothing more than greater autonomy. While some critics may equate separatism with religious segregation, racist segregation, or sexist segregation, most separatists argue that separation by choice is not the same as government-enforced segregation and may serve useful purposes. There is some academic debate about this definition, and in particular how it relates to secessionism, as has been discussed online. Separatist groups practice a form of identity politics, "political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups." Such groups believe attempts at integration with dominant groups compromise their identity and ability to pursue greater self-determination. However, economic and political factors usually are critical in creating strong separatist movements as opposed to less ambitious identity movements." (DBpedia, 2018)
«L'indépendantisme, l'aspiration à l'indépendance, est utilisé dans le cadre politique pour désigner la revendication pour une collectivité à ne pas être « soumis à l'autorité d'un autre organe ou d'une autre collectivité ». Il correspond donc à des mouvements politique, généralement d'inspiration nationaliste, visant à obtenir l'indépendance politique d'un territoire et pouvant être représenté par des partis politiques organisés, ou simplement naître d'un vaste mouvement d'opinion, qui s'organise ensuite en mouvements structurés. Les motivations de l'indépendantisme peuvent avoir des racines politiques, ethniques, historiques ou religieuses, aucune motivation n'excluant les autres. Le mouvement de décolonisation survenu au XXe siècle est caractérisé par l'aboutissement d'un ensemble de mouvements d'indépendance. À la différence de l'autonomisme, l'indépendantisme vise à la sécession d'un État, d'une province ou d'un territoire par rapport au pays auquel il appartient. Les revendications indépendantistes peuvent évoluer vers l'autonomisme, comme dans le cas de la Ligue du Nord en Italie : à l'inverse, des revendications autonomistes peuvent se radicaliser et évoluer vers l'indépendantisme. L'indépendantisme est également appelé à tort séparatisme. La nuance s'établissant au niveau de l'objectif et du moyen. Pour l'indépendantiste le but est l'indépendance, tandis que la séparation tout comme la sécession n'est qu'un passage obligé pour l'atteindre. Les revendications indépendantistes peuvent éventuellement s'exprimer par diverses formes de violence, incluant le terrorisme, et aboutir à des conflits armés d'envergure, comme dans le cas d'une guerre d'indépendance - guerre d'Indochine, guerre d'Algérie, guerres de Yougoslavie - mais également dans le cadre d'un processus politique non violent, comme dans le cas de la Tchécoslovaquie, séparée pour devenir la République tchèque et la Slovaquie, ou bien dans le cas de l'éclatement de l'URSS, dont la plupart des anciennes républiques se séparent d'un commun accord, la majorité se réunissant ensuite au sein de la Communauté des États indépendants. L'exemple du mouvement pour l'indépendance de l'Inde illustre le cas de revendications indépendantistes partagées entre violence et non-violence : Subhash Chandra Bose, partisan de l'action armée, finira par conduire le Gouvernement provisoire de l'Inde libre et affronter militairement les Britanniques durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, mais c'est finalement la ligne pacifiste du Mahatma Gandhi qui obtiendra quelques années plus tard l'indépendance du pays.» (DBpedia, 2018)
lesbian feminism
lesbian feminist
"Lesbian feminism is a cultural movement and critical perspective, most influential in the 1970s and early 1980s (primarily in North America and Western Europe), that encourages women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and often advocates lesbianism as the logical result of feminism. Some key thinkers and activists are Charlotte Bunch, Rita Mae Brown, Adrienne Rich, Audre Lorde, Marilyn Frye, Mary Daly, Sheila Jeffreys, Barbara Smith, Pat Parker, Margaret Sloan-Hunter, Cheryl Clarke, Gloria Anzaldua, Cherrie Moraga, and Monique Wittig (although the latter is more commonly associated with the emergence of queer theory). Lesbian feminism came together in the early 1970s out of dissatisfaction with second-wave feminism and the gay liberation movement. In the words of lesbian feminist Sheila Jeffreys, "Lesbian feminism emerged as a result of two developments: lesbians within the WLM (Women's Liberation Movement) began to create a new, distinctively feminist lesbian politics, and lesbians in the GLF (Gay Liberation Front) left to join up with their sisters". According to Judy Rebick, a leading Canadian journalist and political activist for feminism, lesbians were and always have been at the heart of the women's movement, while their issues were invisible in the same movement. Lesbian feminism of color emerged as a response to lesbian feminism thought that failed to incorporate the issues of class and race as sources of oppression along with heterosexuality." (DBpedia, 2018)
abolition
anti-slavery
integrationism
sugar boycotter
abolitionism
Abolitionnisme
"Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery, whether formal or informal. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism is a historical movement to end the African and Indian slave trade and set slaves free. King Charles I of Spain, usually known as Emperor Charles V, following the example of the Swedish monarch, passed a law which would have abolished colonial slavery in 1542, although this law was not passed in the largest colonial states, and so was not enforced. In the late 17th century, the Roman Catholic Church, taking up a plea by Lourenco da Silva de Mendouca, officially condemned the slave trade, which was affirmed vehemently by Pope Gregory XVI in 1839. An abolitionist movement only started in the late 18th century, however, when English and American Quakers began to question the morality of slavery. James Oglethorpe was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, banning it in the Province of Georgia on humanist grounds, arguing against it in Parliament, and eventually encouraging his friends Granville Sharp and Hannah More to vigorously pursue the cause. Soon after his death in 1785, they joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. The Somersett Case in 1772, which emancipated a slave in England, helped launch the British movement to abolish slavery. Though anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, the colonies and emerging nations that used slave labour continued to do so: French, English and Portuguese territories in the West Indies; South America; and the Southern United States. After the American Revolution established the United States, northern states, beginning with Pennsylvania in 1780, passed legislation during the next two decades abolishing slavery, sometimes by gradual emancipation. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal; freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state. Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union. David Brion Davis argues that the main driving force was a new moral consciousness, with an intellectual assist from the Enlightenment, and a powerful impulse from religious Quakers and evangelicals. France abolished slavery within the French Kingdom in 1315. Revolutionary France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1794, before it was restored by Napoleon in 1802. Haiti achieved independence from France in 1804 and brought an end to slavery in its territory, establishing the second republic in the New World. The northern states in the U.S. all abolished slavery by 1804. The United Kingdom and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. Britain abolished slavery throughout the British Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, the French colonies abolished it in 1848 and the U.S. in 1865 with the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia; and to emancipate the serfs in Russia (Emancipation reform of 1861). It was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The last country to abolish legal slavery was Mauritania, where it was officially abolished by presidential decree in 1981. Today, child and adult slavery and forced labour are illegal in most countries, as well as being against international law, but a high rate of human trafficking for labour and for sexual bondage continues to affect tens of millions of adults and children" (DBpedia, 2017).
«L'abolitionnisme est un courant de pensée qui émerge dans le dernier tiers du XVIIIe siècle dans le monde occidental (notamment en Grande-Bretagne) et vise la suppression de l'esclavage. Par extension, on utilise le terme pour tous les mouvements qui cherchent la suppression d'une tradition, d'une institution ou d'une loi : abolition de la peine de mort, de la torture, du travail, des privilèges, des prisons, de la prostitution, du spécisme, etc.» (DBpedia, 2017)
aids activist
AIDS activism
lutte contre le sida
Activism related to HIV/AIDS, ranging from addressing attitudes to changing government policies related to treatment and medication. See: Category:AIDS activism - Wikipedia
Militantisme lié au sida/VIH, allant du changement des comportements aux politiques gouvernementales sur les traitements et les médicaments. Voir Mouvements des malades — Wikipédia
(us) nationalist
us nationalist
us patriotism
american nationalist
American nationalism
nationalisme américain
American nationalism emphasizes the distinctiveness of American language, culture, and history, and calls for a celebration of "Americanness," which might include white nationalist pride and anti-immigration.
Le nationalisme américain souligne la spécificité de la langue, de la culture et de l'histoire américaine et revendique la célébration de l'"américanité", pouvant inclure le nationalisme blanc et la lutte contre l'immigration.
anarchist
anarchism
Anarchisme
"Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is usually considered a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism, mutualism, or participatory economics." (DBpedia, 2017)
L'anarchisme est un courant de philosophie politique développé depuis le XIXe siècle sur un ensemble de théories et de pratiques anti-autoritaires d'égalité sociale. Le terme libertaire, souvent utilisé comme synonyme d'anarchisme, est un néologisme créé en 1857 par Joseph Déjacque pour renforcer le caractère égalitaire. Fondé sur la négation du principe d'autorité dans l'organisation sociale et le refus de toute contrainte découlant des institutions basées sur ce principe, l'anarchisme a pour but de développer une société sans domination et sans exploitation, où les individus-producteurs coopèrent librement dans une dynamique d'autogestion et de fédéralisme. Contre l'oppression, l'anarchisme propose une société basée sur la solidarité comme solution aux antagonismes, la complémentarité de la liberté de chacun et celle de la collectivité, l'égalité des conditions de vie et la propriété commune autogérée. Il s'agit donc d'un mode politique qui cherche non pas à résoudre les différences opposant les membres constituants de la société mais à associer des forces autonomes et contradictoires. Le terme «anarchisme» et ses dérivés sont employés tantôt péjorativement, comme synonymes de désordre social dans le sens commun ou courant et qui se rapproche de l'anomie, tantôt comme un but pratique, car l'anarchisme défend l'idée que l'absence d'une structure de pouvoir n'est pas synonyme de désorganisation sociale. Les anarchistes rejettent en général la conception courante de l'anarchie (utilisée par les médias et les pouvoirs politiques). Pour eux, l'ordre naît de la liberté, tandis que les pouvoirs engendrent le désordre. Certains anarchistes useront du terme «acratie» (du grec «kratos», le pouvoir), donc littéralement «absence de pouvoir», plutôt que du terme «anarchie» qui leur semble devenu ambigu. De même, certains anarchistes auront plutôt tendance à utiliser le terme de «libertaires». Pour ses partisans, l'anarchie n'est justement pas le désordre social. C'est plutôt le contraire, soit l'ordre social absolu, grâce notamment au collectivisme anti-capitaliste. Ce collectivisme, contrairement à l'idée de possessions privées capitalisées, suggère celle de possessions individuelles ne garantissant aucun droit de propriété, notamment celle touchant l'accumulation de biens non utilisés. En outre, ce collectivisme s'exprime par une liberté politique organisée autour du mandatement impératif, de l'autogestion, du fédéralisme et de la démocratie directe. L'anarchie est donc organisée et structurée : c'est l'ordre moins le pouvoir. L'anarchisme est un mouvement pluriel qui embrasse l'ensemble des secteurs de la vie et de la société. Concept philosophique, c'est également «une idée pratique et matérielle, un mode d'être de la vie et des relations entre les êtres qui naît tout autant de la pratique que de la philosophie ; ou pour être plus précis qui naît toujours de la pratique, la philosophie n'étant elle-même qu'une pratique, importante mais parmi d'autres». En 1928, Sébastien Faure, dans La Synthèse anarchiste, définit quatre grands courants qui cohabitent tout au long de l'histoire du mouvement : * l'individualisme libertaire qui insiste sur l'autonomie individuelle contre toute autorité ; * le socialisme libertaire qui propose une gestion collective égalitaire de la société ; * le communisme libertaire, qui de l'aphorisme «De chacun selon ses moyens, à chacun selon ses besoins» créé par Louis Blanc, veut économiquement partir du besoin des individus, pour ensuite produire le nécessaire pour y répondre ; * l'anarcho-syndicalisme, qui" propose une méthode, le syndicalisme, comme moyen de lutte et d'organisation de la société. Depuis, de nouvelles sensibilités se sont affirmées, telles l'anarcha-féminisme ou l'écologie sociale. La pertinence de cette section est remise en cause, considérez son contenu avec précaution. En discuter ? Pour Vivien Garcia dans L'Anarchisme aujourd'hui (2007), l'anarchisme «ne peut être conçu comme un monument théorique achevé. La réflexion anarchiste n'a rien du système. […] L'anarchisme se constitue comme une nébuleuse de pensées qui peuvent se renvoyer de façon contingente les unes aux autres plutôt que comme une doctrine close» Selon l'historien américain Paul Avrich : «Les anarchistes ont exercé et continuent d'exercer une grande influence. Leur internationalisme rigoureux et leur antimilitarisme, leurs expériences d'autogestion ouvrière, leur lutte pour la libération de la femme et pour l'émancipation sexuelle, leurs écoles et universités libres, leur aspiration écologique à un équilibre entre la ville et la campagne, entre l'homme et la nature, tout cela est d'une actualité criante.»" (DBpedia, 2017)
animal activist
animal welfare activist
animal welfare
animal rights activist
animal rights
anti-cruelty to animals
anti-cruelty
anti-hunting
anti-blood-sports
animal welfare advocacy
défense du bien-être animal
Advocacy, often in the form of activism, for the welfare of animals. See: Animal welfare - Wikipedia
Défense pour le bien-être des animaux, souvent sous forme de miliitantisme. Voir Bien-être animal — Wikipédia
anti-American politics
anti-américanisme
anti-American
Opposed to the policies or influence of the United States of America, often with reference to specific government actions. See: Anti-Americanism - Wikipedia
Opposition aux politiques ou à l'influence des États-Unis, souvent en référence à des actions gouvernementales spécifiques. Voir: Antiaméricanisme — Wikipédia
anti-anti-semitism
anti-antisemitist
anti-antisemitic
anti-antisemitism
anti-antisémitisme
Opposed to anti-semitic attitudes and practices. See Antisemitism - Wikipedia
Opposition aux attitude et aux pratiques antisémitistes. Voir Antisémitisme — Wikipédia
anti-apartheid
the struggle to end Apartheid
"The Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM), originally known as the Boycott Movement, was a British organisation that was at the centre of the international movement opposing South Africa's system of apartheid and supporting South Africa's non-whites." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-Boer politics
anti-boer
anti-Boer
"Opposition to the Second Boer War in Britain was modest when the war began on 11 October 1899 and was always less widespread than support for it, let alone prevailing indifference. However, influential groups formed immediately and ineffectually against the war, including the South African Conciliation Committee and W. T. Stead's Stop the War Committee." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-bolshevik
anti-Bolshevism
Anticommunisme
"Anti-communism is opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when America and the Soviet Union engaged in an intense rivalry. Most modern anti-communists reject the concept of historical materialism, which is a central idea in Marxism. Anti-communists reject the Marxist belief that capitalism will be followed by socialism and communism, just as feudalism was followed by capitalism. Anti-communists question the validity of the Marxist claim that the socialist state will "wither away" when it becomes unnecessary in a true communist society. Anti-communists also accuse communists of having caused several famines that occurred in 20th-century communist states, such as the Russian Famine of 1921 and the much more severe famine in China during the Great Leap Forward. Some anti-communists refer to both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be rigidly intolerant of political opposition. Communist governments have also been accused of creating a new ruling class (a Nomenklatura), with powers and privileges greater than those previously enjoyed by the upper classes in the non-communist regimes." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme d'anticommunisme englobe, au sens large, l'ensemble des attitudes d'opposition ou d'hostilité envers les aspects théoriques ou pratiques du communisme : l'anticommunisme peut se traduire sous forme de simple prise de position, de discours politique structuré, d'action ou de propagande. Son sens est cependant changeant en fonction de celui du «communisme», mot qui recouvre lui-même un ensemble de réalités très différentes les unes des autres en fonction des contextes sociaux, culturels et politiques. Les facteurs distinguant les différents types d'anticommunisme sont notamment la forme de communisme explicitement visée et les motivations qui poussent à s'opposer au communisme ; le terme «anticommunisme» est employé, selon les époques et les contextes, pour qualifier l'opposition aux théories marxistes ou communistes elles-mêmes, ou aux mouvances et partis politiques s'en réclamant, ou bien à la pratique politique des régimes communistes. Le terme d'«anticommunisme» a pu ainsi être utilisé pour qualifier les opposants au stalinisme, que ces derniers aient été ou non anticommunistes au sens strict. Apparu au XIXe siècle en tant que concept, l'anticommunisme s'est largement développé au cours du XXe siècle, à la suite de la prise du pouvoir par les bolcheviks en Russie en octobre 1917, puis à la création de l'URSS : il s'est alors identifié, pour l'essentiel, à l'opposition aux régimes communistes et aux partis communistes d'inspiration léniniste et stalinienne. Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'anticommunisme devient un élément majeur de la politique étrangère et intérieure des États-Unis, opposés à l'URSS dans le contexte de la guerre froide.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-bonapartist
anti-Bonapartism
anti-bonapartisme
Opposed to the political ideology of Napolean Bonaparte and his followers. See Bonapartism - Wikipedia
Opposition à la politique et aux idées de Napoléon Bonaparte et ses parisans. Voir Bonapartisme — Wikipédia
anti-British politics
anglophobie
anti-British
Opposed to the policies or influence of the United Kingdom, often with reference to specific government actions. See: Anti-British sentiment - Wikipedia
Opposition aux politiques ou à l'influence du Royaume-Uni, souvent en référence à des actions gouvernementales spécifiques. Voir Anglophobie — Wikipédia
anti-capital-punishment
opponent of capital punishment
opposition to capital punishment
against capital punishment
anti-capital punishment
Peine de mort
"Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, whereas the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an execution. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital is derived from the Latin capitalis ("of the head", referring to execution by beheading). Fifty-eight countries retain capital punishment, 102 countries have completely abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 32 are abolitionist in practice. Capital punishment is a matter of active controversy in various countries and states, and positions can vary within a single political ideology or cultural region. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. Also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012, and 2014 non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India, the United States, and Indonesia." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La peine de mort, ou peine capitale, est une peine prévue par la loi consistant à exécuter une personne ayant été reconnue coupable d'une faute qualifiée de «crime capital». La sentence est prononcée par l'institution judiciaire à l'issue d'un procès. En l'absence d'un procès, ou dans les cas où celui-ci n'est pas réalisé par une institution reconnue, on parle d'exécution sommaire, d'acte de vengeance ou de justice privée. La peine de mort est diversement considérée selon les époques et les régions géographiques. Elle est prévue dans les textes de loi de 93 pays, mais seuls 22 des 192 pays du globe ont procédé à des exécutions en 2014. Elle est une sanction reconnue bien que réprouvée par les institutions internationales comme l'Organisation des Nations unies (ONU). Les États abolitionnistes sont aujourd'hui majoritaires, mais ils ne représentent encore qu'une minorité de la population mondiale. Parmi les démocraties industrialisées, seules deux la pratiquent : les États-Unis et le Japon. Au plan international, le 18 décembre 2007, l'Assemblée générale de l'ONU a adopté la résolution 62/149 appelant à un moratoire sur les exécutions dans le monde. Cette résolution (comme les autres résolutions de l'ONU) n'a pas de valeur contraignante mais peut être vue comme le signe que la majorité des états souhaite remettre en cause la peine de mort. Cependant huit des dix pays les plus peuplés ont voté contre la résolution. Elle a été renouvelée en 2014.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-capitalist
anti-property
anti-capitalism
Anticapitalisme
"Anti-capitalism encompasses a wide variety of movements, ideas and attitudes that oppose capitalism. Anti-capitalists, in the strict sense of the word, are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'anticapitalisme regroupe un ensemble de mouvements qui s'opposent au capitalisme. Les aspects visés diffèrent selon les conceptions et peuvent notamment concerner, sans y être limités, le profit et l'importance de l'argent, la spéculation, le salariat, la concurrence économique, les effets considérés comme des effets néfastes du capitalisme sur la société (comme sa supposée «immoralité», ou les inégalités économiques qu'il est censé entraîner), l'environnement, ou les formes sociales de base du capitalisme. Un spectre politique large et très divers s'est réclamé ou se réclame de l'anticapitalisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
worked against the caste system
anti-caste movement
mouvement contre le système de castes
Advocacy or activism opposing the caste system in India. See Caste system in India - Wikipedia; Caste politics - Wikipedia; Dalit - Wikipedia
Militantisme ou activisme en opposition au système de castes en Inde. Voir Castes en Inde — Wikipédia; Intouchables (Inde) — Wikipédia
anti-catholic
anti-catholic-emancipation
anti-catholicism
Anticatholicisme
"Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy and adherents. After the Reformation and until at least the late 20th Century, majority Protestant states (especially England, Germany, the United States, and Canada) made anti-Catholicism and opposition to the Pope and Catholic rituals major political themes, with anti-Catholic sentiment at times leading to violence and religious discrimination against Catholic individuals (often derogatorily referred to in Anglophone Protestant countries as "papists" or "Romanists"). Historically, Catholics in Protestant countries were frequently (and almost always baselessly) suspected of conspiring against the state in furtherance of papal interests or to establish a political hegemony under the "Papacy", with Protestants sometimes questioning Catholic individuals' loyalty to the state and suspecting Catholics of ultimately maintaining loyalty to the Vatican rather than their domiciled country. In majority Protestant countries with large scale immigration, such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, suspicion or discrimination of Catholic immigrants often overlapped or conflated with nativism, xenophobia, and ethnocentric or racist sentiments (i.e. anti-Italianism, anti-Irish sentiment, hispanophobia, Anti-Quebec sentiment). In the Early modern period, in the face of rising secular powers in Europe, the Catholic Church struggled to maintain its traditional religious and political role in primarily Catholic nations. As a result of these struggles, there arose in some majority Catholic countries (especially among those individuals with certain secular political views) a hostile attitude towards the considerable political, social, spiritual, and religious power of the Pope and the clergy in the form of anti-clericalism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'anticatholicisme désigne la méfiance, la discrimination, la répression, ou la persécution du catholicisme et des catholiques.» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-free speech
pro free speech
Freedom of Speech
anti-censorship
intellectual property activist
anti-censorship movement
lutte contre la censure
Opposition to censorship. See Freedom of speech - Wikipedia
Opposition à la censure. Voir Liberté d'expression — Wikipédia
anti-communist
anti-communism
anti-conscriptionist
anti-conscriptionism
lutte contre la conscription militaire
Opposition to compulsory enlistment of people in either war or peacetime into a national service, usually military service.
Opposition à la conscription militaire obligatoire pour le service nationale en temps de guerre ou de paix, généralement à travers le service militaire. Voir Antimilitarisme — Wikipédia
anti-contagious diseases act activist
anti-contagious diseases acts
against the Contagious Diseases Acts
anti-Contagious Diseases Act
anti-Contagious Diseases Acte
Opposition to government regulation of prostitution including the forced physical examination of suspected prostitutes for venereal disease. See: Contagious Diseases Acts - Wikipedia
Opposition à la régulation gouvernementale de la prostitution, incluant les examens médicaux forcés conduits sur les prostituées suspectées de véhiculer des maladies vénériennes. Voir Contagious Diseases Acts — Wikipédia; Abolitionnisme (prostitution) — Wikipédia
anti-corporal punishment
lutte contre les châtiments corporels
"Campaigns against corporal punishment aim to reduce or eliminate corporal punishment of minors by instigating legal and cultural changes in the areas where such punishments are practiced. Such campaigns date mostly from the late 20th century, although occasional voices in opposition to corporal punishment existed from ancient times through to the modern era. The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child defines "corporal punishment" as: any punishment in which physical force is used and intended to cause some degree of pain or discomfort, however light. Most involves hitting ("smacking", "slapping", "spanking") children, with the hand or with an implement – whip, stick, belt, shoe, wooden spoon, etc. But it can also involve, for example, kicking, shaking or throwing children, scratching, pinching, biting, pulling hair or boxing ears, forcing children to stay in uncomfortable positions, burning, scalding, or forced ingestion." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-Dreyfusard
antidreyfusard
Supporters of the French military during the prosecution of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. See: Dreyfus affair - Wikipedia
Défenseurs de l'Armée lors de le procès du capitaine Alfred Dreyfus. Voir Affaire Dreyfus — Wikipédia
anti-European politics
anti-European
Euroscepticisme
Opposed to the existence, policies, or influence of the European Union. On Euroskepticism, see Euroscepticism - Wikipedia
Opposition à l'existence, aux politiques, ou à l'influence de l'Union Européenne. Sur l'euroscepticisme, voir Euroscepticisme — Wikipédia
anti-fascist
strongly opposed Fascism
anti-nazi
anti-fascism
Antifascisme
"Anti-fascism is opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. The anti-fascist movement began in a few European countries in the 1920s and eventually spread to other countries around the world." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antifascisme est l'opposition organisée au fascisme et, plus largement, à l'extrême droite. Il prend forme dans les années 1920 et se développe conséquemment à la montée du fascisme en Europe. Il a connu un très fort développement au cours des années 1930, étant à l'origine de la formation des Fronts populaires , puis pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale au sein des résistances contre les dictatures fascistes et nazies ainsi que les régimes de collaboration. L'antifascisme peut désigner dans une acception plus large une idéologie tendant à s'opposer également à la droite dite «dure». Certains historiens reprochent à l'antifascisme d'avoir été instrumentalisé par le mouvement communiste.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-federalist
Anti-Federalism
Antifédéralisme
"Anti-Federalism refers to a movement that opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution. The previous constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, gave state governments more authority. Led by Patrick Henry of Virginia, Anti-Federalists worried, among other things, that the position of president, then a novelty, might evolve into a monarchy." (DBpedia, 2017)
Antifédéralisme fut le nom donné à deux mouvements politiques distincts à la fin du XVIIIe siècle aux États-Unis: * Le premier mouvement antifédéraliste des années 1780, s'opposa à la création d'un gouvernement national plus fort, tel que le permettait la Constitution et chercha à le conserver tel qu'il était institué dans les Articles de la Confédération de 1777. * Le second mouvement antifédéraliste se" constitua en réaction aux lois fiscales d'Alexander Hamilton lors du premier mandat de George Washington. Ce mouvement est parfois nommé l'Anti-Administration Party qui deviendra plus tard le Parti républicain-démocrate de Thomas Jefferson et James Madison." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-feminist
antifeminist
misogynist
non-feminist
anti-women's liberation
gender conservative
anti-feminism
Antiféminisme
"Antifeminism is criticism of some or all feminist ideology, arguing that modern feminism is not practiced in ways that promote true gender equality. This opposition has taken various forms across time and cultures. For example, antifeminists in the late 1800s and early 1900s resisted women's suffrage, while antifeminists in the late 20th century opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. Antifeminism may be motivated by the belief that feminist theories of patriarchy and disadvantages suffered by women in modern society are mischaracterized or exaggerated; that feminism as a movement encourages misandry and results in harm or oppression of men; or driven by general opposition towards women's rights." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antiféminisme est un néologisme qualifiant des critiques ou une opposition aux mouvements ou aux thèses féministes, pour des raisons politiques, philosophiques, religieuses, sociologiques ou culturelles. Il s'applique soit à la lutte contre l'émancipation féminine, soit au refus des thèses d'un ou plusieurs mouvements se disant «féministes».» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-globalist
anti-globalization
anti-globalism
Mouvement antimondialisation
"The anti-globalization movement, or counter-globalization movement, is a social movement critical of the globalization of corporate capitalism. The movement is also commonly referred to as the global justice movement, alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist movement, anti-corporate globalization movement, or movement against neoliberal globalization. Participants base their criticisms on a number of related ideas. What is shared is that participants oppose what they see as large, multi-national corporations having unregulated political power, exercised through trade agreements and deregulated financial markets. Specifically, corporations are accused of seeking to maximize profit at the expense of work safety conditions and standards, labor hiring and compensation standards, environmental conservation principles, and the integrity of national legislative authority, independence and sovereignty. As of January 2012, some commentators have characterized the unprecedented changes in the global economy as "turbo-capitalism" (Edward Luttwak), "market fundamentalism" (George Soros), "casino capitalism" (Susan Strange), and as "McWorld" (Benjamin Barber). Many anti-globalization activists call for forms of global integration that better provide democratic representation, advancement of human rights, fair trade and sustainable development and therefore feel the term "anti-globalization" is misleading." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mouvement antimondialisation désigne le mouvement d'opposition à la mondialisation.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-imperial
anti-imperialist
anti-colonialism
anti-colonialist
anti-colonial
Zulu resistance to colonial rule
Anti-imperialism
Anti-impérialisme
""Anti-imperialism" in political science and international relations is a term used in a variety of contexts, usually by nationalist movements, who want to secede from a larger polity (usually in the form of an empire, but also in a multi-ethnic sovereign state) or as a specific theory opposed to capitalism in Marxist–Leninist discourse, derived from Vladimir Lenin's work Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. A less common usage is by isolationists who oppose an interventionist foreign policy. People who categorise themselves as anti-imperialists, often state that they are opposed to colonialism, colonial empire, hegemony, imperialism, and territorial expansion of a country beyond its established borders. The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War and at the onset of the Cold War as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some "anti-imperialist" groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, such as in Guevarism, while in Maoism, this was criticized as "social imperialism". In the Arab and Muslim world, the term is often used in the context of Anti-Zionist nationalist and religious movements." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'anti-impérialisme est une idéologie d'opposition à l'impérialisme, c'est-à-dire la doctrine d'un État ou un groupe d'États à mettre un autre État ou un groupe d'États plus faible sous sa dépendance politique, économique et culturelle par la conquête militaire ou toute autre forme de coercition. Cette idéologie est corollaire au processus de décolonisation, aux mouvements de libération nationale et, dans une certaine mesure, au nationalisme. Bien que le terme impérialisme est utilisé la langue française au cours XIXe siècle pour désigner l'appui au régime napoléonien et le «système de gouvernement et de domination de l'Empire romain», l'anti-impérialisme prend son origine durant la seconde moitié de XIXe siècle de l'anglais imperialism qui désigne d'abord la politique d'extension coloniale de l'Empire britannique sous le premier ministre britannique Benjamin Disraeli au cours des années 1870. Le concept sera approfondi par John Atkinson Hobson en 1902 dans son livre Imperialism: A Study. L'anti-impérialisme est aussi une notions cruciale du marxisme-léninisme. Le concept, qui diffère de l'usage commun, est approfondi dans le livre de 1917 L'Impérialisme, stade suprême du capitalisme de Lénine entre autres. Dans la théorie marxiste, l'impérialisme est un stade du capitalisme au cours duquel le capital financier supplante toutes les autres formes du capital. L'anti-impérialisme a été l'un des principales politique de l'URSS, de la République populaire de Chine, de Cuba et des autres pays communistes depuis la seconde moitié du XXe siècle. La fin du XXe siècle sous l'hégémonie des États-Unis voit la naissance d'un nouvel impérialisme . L'anti-impérialisme, dans ces circonstances, est une part intégrante du mouvement altermondialiste qui s'oppose à la mondialisation libérale et aux grands accords de libre-échange et du mouvement pacifiste qui s'oppose aux invasions militaires.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-revolutionary
anti-Jacobin
Opposed to Jacobinism. See Jacobin - Wikipedia
Opposition au jacobinisme. Voir Jacobinisme — Wikipédia
anti-Jacobite
Opposed to Jacobitism. See Jacobitism - Wikipedia
Opposition au jacobitisme. Voir Jacobitisme — Wikipédia
Anti-Irish National Land League
anti-Irish Home Rule
anti-Land League
Unionist (Irish)
Opposed to the Irish Land League movement. See Irish National Land League - Wikipedia
Opposition au mouvement de la Irish Land Lead.
anti-monarchist
anti-royalist
anti-monarchism
antimonarchisme
"The abolition of monarchy has occurred throughout history, either through revolutions, coups d'état, wars, or legislative reforms (such as abdications). The founding of the Roman Republic is a noteworthy example and became part of the nation's traditions including as justification for the assassination of Julius Caesar. The twentieth century saw a major acceleration of this process, with many monarchies violently overthrown by revolution or war, or else abolished as part of the process of decolonisation. By contrast, the restoration of monarchies is rare in modern times, with only two major examples, Spain and Cambodia." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-nuclear weapons
nuclear disarmament
nuclear disarmament campaigner
pro nuclear disarmament
anti-nuclear
anti-atomic
anti-nuclear activist
anti-nuclear war
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
anti-nuclear movement
mouvement antinucléaire
"The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies. Some direct action groups, environmental groups, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, and international level. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service. The initial objective of the movement was nuclear disarmament, though since the late 1960s opposition has included the use of nuclear power. Many anti-nuclear groups oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics. Scientists and diplomats have debated nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing in the Pacific. In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing. Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, West Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in the 1970s. A protest against nuclear power occurred in July 1977 in Bilbao, Spain, with up to 200,000 people in attendance. Following the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, an anti-nuclear protest was held in New York City, involving 200,000 people. In 1981, Germany's largest anti-nuclear power demonstration took place to protest against the Brokdorf Nuclear Power Plant west of Hamburg; some 100,000 people came face to face with 10,000 police officers. The largest protest was held on June 12, 1982, when one million people demonstrated in New York City against nuclear weapons. A 1983 nuclear weapons protest in West Berlin had about 600,000 participants. In May 1986, following the Chernobyl disaster, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people marched in Rome to protest against the Italian nuclear program. In the US, public opposition preceded the shutdown of the Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone 1, Rancho Seco, Maine Yankee, and many other nuclear power plants. For many years after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster nuclear power was off the policy agenda in most countries, and the anti-nuclear power movement seemed to have won its case. Some anti-nuclear groups disbanded. In the 2000s (decade), however, following public relations activities by the nuclear industry, advances in nuclear reactor designs, and concerns about climate change, nuclear power issues came back into energy policy discussions in some countries. The 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents subsequently undermined the nuclear power industry's proposed renaissance and revived nuclear opposition worldwide, putting governments on the defensive. As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power. Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mouvement antinucléaire désigne l'ensemble des personnes et organisations (associations, syndicats, partis politiques) qui s'opposent de façon générale à l'utilisation de l'énergie nucléaire. Cette opposition peut s'étendre de la bombe atomique aux armes utilisant l'uranium appauvri, jusqu'à la production d'électricité d'origine nucléaire, l'irradiation des aliments et l'utilisation de la radioactivité. Les opposants au nucléaire soutiennent qu'il existe des solutions alternatives, telles que les économies d'énergie ou les énergies renouvelables et que l'uranium est, de même que les énergies fossiles, une source d'énergie dont l'épuisement est attendu dans quelques décennies. Il existe aussi une opposition spécifique à l'arme nucléaire, que l'on peut qualifier de «mouvement antinucléaire militaire». Les opposants au nucléaire soutiennent notamment qu'il existe des liens étroits entre le nucléaire civil et militaire, et que le nucléaire civil a une responsabilité lourde dans la prolifération nucléaire.» (DBpedia, 2017)
conscriptionist
war supporter
anti-appeasement
non-pacifist
anti-pacifism
antipacifisme
Opposed to pacifism. See Pacifism - Wikipedia
Opposition au pacifisme. Voir Pacifisme — Wikipédia
anti-poverty activist
anti-poverty movement
mouvement de lutte contre la pauvreté
Advocacy or activism to reduce poverty. See Poverty reduction - Wikipedia
Militantisme pour réduire la pauvreté. Voir Pauvreté — Wikipédia
anti-racist
anti-racism
antiracisme
"Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. In general, anti-racism is intended to promote an egalitarian society in which people do not face discrimination on the basis of their race, however defined. By its nature, anti-racism tends to promote the view that racism in a particular society is both pernicious and socially pervasive, and that particular changes in political, economic, and/or social life are required to eliminate it." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antiracisme inclut les opinions, actions, mouvements et les politiques adoptées ou développée pour s'opposer au racisme. En général l'antiracisme promeut une société dans laquelle les individus ne subissent pas de discrimination sur la base de leur ethnie dont la définition peut varier. De par sa nature, l'antiracisme avance la vision que le racisme dans une société est à la fois pernicieux et socialement pénalisant et que des changements politiques, économiques et/ou sociaux sont nécessaires pour l'éradiquer. La notion d'antiracisme, tout comme les acteurs de la lutte dite antiraciste, ont été critiqués par certains intellectuels notamment pour sa faiblesse conceptuelle, ses utilisations politiques, voire paradoxalement par la réintroduction de la notion de race au sein du débat national.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-socialist
anti-socialism
Critiques du socialisme
"Criticism of socialism refers to any critique of socialist models of economic organisation and their feasibility; as well as the political and social implications of adopting such a system. Some criticisms are not directed towards socialism as a system, but are directed towards the socialist movement, socialist political parties or existing socialist states. Some critics consider socialism to be a purely theoretical concept that should be criticized on theoretical grounds (such as in the Socialist calculation debate); others hold that certain historical examples exist and that they can be criticized on practical grounds. Economic liberals and right libertarians view private ownership of the means of production and the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty, and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute. Therefore, they perceive public ownership of the means of production, cooperatives and economic planning as infringements upon liberty. According to the Austrian school economist Ludwig von Mises, an economic system that does not utilize money, financial calculation and market pricing will be unable to effectively value capital goods and coordinate production, and therefore socialism is impossible because it lacks the necessary information to perform economic calculation in the first place. Another central argument leveled against socialist systems based on economic planning is based on the use of dispersed knowledge. Socialism is unfeasible in this view because information cannot be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result in distorted or absent price signals. Many economic criticisms of socialism focus on the experiences of Soviet-type planned economies. It is argued that a lack of budget constraints in enterprises operating in a planned economy reduces incentives for enterprises to act on information efficiently, thereby reducing overall welfare for society. Other economists criticize models of socialism based on neoclassical economics for their reliance on the faulty and unrealistic assumptions of economic equilibrium and pareto efficiency. Some philosophers have also criticized the aims of socialism, arguing that equality erodes away at individual diversities, and that the establishment of an equal society would have to entail strong coercion. Critics of the socialist political movement often criticize the internal conflicts of the socialist movement as creating a sort of "responsibility void." Because there are many models of socialism, most critiques are only focused on a specific type of socialism. Therefore, the criticisms presented below may not apply to all forms of socialism, and many will focus on the experience of Soviet-type economies. It is also important to note that different models of socialism conflict with each other over questions of property ownership, economic coordination and how socialism is to be achieved - so critics of specific models of socialism might be advocates of a different type of socialism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les critiques du socialisme se réfèrent aux critiques des modèles socialistes d'organisation économique, de leurs efficacités et de leurs faisabilités, ainsi que des implications politiques et sociales de tels systèmes. Certaines critiques ne sont pas dirigées vers le socialisme en tant que système, mais sont dirigés vers des mouvements socialistes, des partis politiques socialistes ou des états socialistes existants. Certaines critiques considèrent le socialisme comme un concept purement théorique qui doit être critiqué pour des raisons théoriques, d'autres soutiennent que les expériences socialistes peuvent être critiquées sur les faits. Certains encore veulent englober plusieurs exemples historiques d'États communistes dans une forme de socialisme.Le socialisme est donc une notion large, certaines critiques présentées dans cet article ne s'appliqueront qu'a un modèle spécifique du socialisme qui peuvent différer considérablement des autres types de socialisme. Les libéraux économiques, libertariens, pro-capitalistes et quelques libéraux classiques considèrent l'entreprise privée, la propriété privée des moyens de production et l'échange sur le marché comme des phénomènes naturels ou moraux[pas clair], au centre de leurs conceptions de la liberté. Et par opposition, les membres de ces trois groupes peuvent percevoir la propriété publique des moyens de production, des coopératives et de la planification économique parrainé par l'État comme des atteintes à la liberté[pas clair]. Les membres de l'école néoclassique d'économie critiquent les théories socialistes qui favorisent la participation de l'État ou de la centralisation du capital sur les motifs du manque de motivation au sein des institutions de l'État d'agir sur l'information aussi efficacement que les gestionnaires dans les entreprises capitalistes parce qu'ils n'ont pas de forte contrainte (profit et mécanisme de perte), ce qui réduit le bien-être économique global pour la société. Les membres de l'école autrichienne d'économie soutiennent que les systèmes socialistes basé sur la planification économique sont impossibles parce qu'ils n'ont pas l'information pour effectuer le calcul économique en premier lieu en raison d'un manque de prix libre, qu'ils croient nécessaires pour rationnelle calcul économique. Les membres du mouvement politique socialiste critiquent souvent les conflits internes du mouvement socialiste en créant une sorte de «vide de responsabilité».» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-suffragist
anti-suffragist movement
anti-suffrage movement
non-suffragist
anti-sufffragist
anti-suffrage
opposition au suffrage universel
"Anti-suffragism was a political movement composed mainly of women, begun in the late 19th century in order to campaign against women's suffrage in Great Britain and the United States. It was closely associated with "domestic feminism", the belief that women had the right to complete freedom within the home." (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-trade-unionist
anti-Union
anti-trade-unionism
opposition au syndicalisme
Opposed to trade unions or the trade union movement. See Trade union - Wikipedia
Opposition aux syndicats ou au mouvement syndical. Voir Répression antisyndicale — Wikipédia
pro-countryside
anti-urbanism
antiurbain
"Anti-urbanism is hostility towards the city as opposed to the country, a simple rejection of the city, or a wish to destroy the city." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antiurbain est l'hostilité à l'égard de la ville par opposition à la campagne, un rejet pur et simple, une volonté de détruire la ville. » (DBpedia, 2017)
movement against compulsory vaccination
anti-vaccination movement
mouvement contre la vaccination
Opposition to vaccination, usually compulsory vaccination. See Vaccine hesitancy - Wikipedia Also see: Category:Vaccine controversies - Wikipedia
Opposition à la vaccination, généralement lorsqu'elle est obligatoire. Voir Controverse sur la vaccination — Wikipédia
anti-vivisectionist
anti-vivisection movement
anti-vivisection
antivivisection
Opposition to experimentation and testing on live animals. See Category:Anti-vivisection movement - Wikipedia Also see Vivisection - Wikipedia
Opposition à l'expérimentation et aux tests conduits sur des animaux vivants. Voir Ligue française contre la vivisection — Wikipédia. Voir aussi Vivisection — Wikipédia
anti-war
anti-war activism
vietnam war protester
anti-Vietnam-War demonstrations
anti Vietnam war
anti-militarism
anti-militaristic
anti-war movement
Antiguerre
"An anti-war movement (also antiwar) is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term can also refer to pacifism, which is the opposition to all use of military force during conflicts. Many activists distinguish between anti-war movements and peace movements. Anti-war activists work through protest and other grassroots means to attempt to pressure a government (or governments) to put an end to a particular war or conflict." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mouvement antiguerre est un mouvement social[réf. nécessaire] s'opposant aux conflits armés.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-zionist
anti-israel
anti-Israeli
anti-Zionism
Antisionisme
"Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism, broadly defined in the modern era as the opposition to the ethnonationalist and political movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the establishment of a Jewish state as a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (also referred to as Palestine, Canaan or the Holy Land) or to the modern State of Israel as defined as A Jewish and Democratic State. The term is used to describe various religious, moral, and political points of view, but their diversity of motivation and expression is sufficiently different that "anti-Zionism" cannot be seen as having a single ideology or source. According to many notable Jewish and non-Jewish sources, anti-Zionism has become a cover for modern-day antisemitism, a position that critics have challenged as a tactic to silence criticism of Israeli policies." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antisionisme (ou anti-sionisme) désigne historiquement l'opposition au projet sioniste d'établissement d'un foyer national juif en Palestine. Il apparaît d'une part parmi les dirigeants traditionalistes juifs pour des raisons religieuses ou par crainte des Juifs assimiliationistes et d'autre part parmi les dirigeants arabes de Palestine et certains officiers britanniques quand la Grande-Bretagne obtient de la société des Nations un mandat pour administrer le pays. Outre l'opposition politique, l'antisionisme arabe palestinien de l'époque se manifeste lors de la Grande Révolte arabe de 1936-1939 et puis par la Guerre israélo-arabe de 1948. L'antisionisme juif est moins important et d'origine religieuse. Il se réduit fortement à partir de 1921 avec la nomination au grand rabbinat d'Eretz Israel du rabbin Abraham Isaac Kook pour disparaître presque totalement après la Shoah, la Résolution 181 de l'ONU du 30 novembre 1947 qui prévoit le Plan de partage de la Palestine et l'établissement d'un État juif, l'État d'Israël, que les Arabes tentèrent vainement d'empêcher lors de la guerre de 1948 et qui est l'aboutissement du projet sioniste originel. Après la guerre de 1967 et les conquêtes territoriales israéliennes, et en parallèle avec la médiatisation de la cause palestinienne et du problème des réfugiés palestiniens, la notion d'antisionisme évolue et devient plus ambiguë. Le terme peut caractériser des prises de positions aussi éloignées que le simple rejet de la politique israélienne à la revendication de son anéantissement. Ainsi, l'antisionisme est parfois invoqué comme une échappatoire pour voiler une nouvelle forme d'antisémitisme et cette accusation est elle-même dénoncée comme une manipulation visant à empêcher toute critique d'Israël et du sionisme. En Israël même, la situation a engendré les mouvements néosioniste et postsioniste, tous deux en opposition avec le «sionisme séculaire» des «pères fondateurs» mais pas nécessairement antisionistes.» (DBpedia, 2017)
antidisestablishmentarian
antidisestablishmentarianism
opposition à l'Establismhment
"Antidisestablishmentarianism (/ˌæn.ti.dɪs.ɪs.tæb.lɪʃ.mənˈtɛə.rɪə.nɪ.zᵊm/, /ˌæn.taɪˌdɪs.ɛsˌtæb.lɪʃ.məntˈɛ.ri.ənˌɪ.zm/) is a political position that developed in 19th-century Britain in opposition to Liberal proposals for the disestablishment of the Church of England—meaning the removal of the Anglican Church's status as the state church of England, Ireland, and Wales. The establishment was maintained in England, but in Ireland the Church of Ireland (Anglican) was disestablished in 1871. In Wales, four Church of England dioceses were disestablished in 1920 and became the Church in Wales. Antidisestablishmentarianism is also one of the longest non-scientific words. The word has also come by analogy to refer to any opposition to those who oppose the establishment, whether the government, in whole or part, or the established society." (DBpedia, 2017)
antisemitic
anti-semitism
antisemitism
Antisémitisme
"Antisemitism (also spelled anti-Semitism or anti-semitism) is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is widely considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for Judenhass ("Jew-hatred") ,and that has been its common use since then. Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, state police, or even military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe, official Soviet anti-Jewish policies, and Arab and Muslim involvement in the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'antisémitisme (originellement : anti-sémitisme) est le nom donné de nos jours à la discrimination et à l'hostilité manifestées à l'encontre des Juifs en tant que groupe ethnique, religieux ou racial. Il s'agit, dans son acception originelle telle que formulée vers la fin du XIXe siècle, d'une forme de racisme dirigée nominalement contre les peuples sémites, regroupés en tant que tels sur base de critères linguistiques, mais ne visant en réalité que les Juifs. Bien que certains historiens comme Jules Isaac insistent pour distinguer antijudaïsme et antisémitisme, le second terme est cependant le plus souvent utilisé aujourd'hui pour qualifier tous les actes d'hostilité anti-juive au cours de l'Histoire, que leurs fondements soient raciaux ou non. Les motifs et mises en pratique de l'antisémitisme incluent divers préjugés, des allégations, des mesures discriminatoires ou d'exclusion socio-économique, des expulsions, voire des massacres d'individus ou de communautés entières.» (DBpedia, 2017)
artists' advocate
advocate for the arts
arts advocacy
défense des arts
Advocacy for the fine, performing, or liberal arts.
Action pour les beaux arts, les arts du spectale ou les humanités.
birth control movement
birth-control activist
birth control campaigner
contraceptionist
pro-birth control
supporter of contraception
pro-contraception
birth control activism
défense du contrôle des naissances
Promotion of birth control awareness, practices, and resources. See: Birth control movement in the United States - Wikipedia. Also see:Category:Birth control - Wikipedia
Sensibilisation sur le contrôle des naissances, à travers les savoirs, les pratiques et les ressources qui y sont liées. Voir Contrôle des naissances — Wikipédia
black liberation
anti-segregationist
black liberationist
black power
black pride
black activist
black anti-oppression movement
mouvement contre l'oppression des Noirs
Opposition to the social, institutional, and political oppression of people defined as black, which varies historically and geographically. See Racism in the United Kingdom - Wikipedia and Civil rights movement - Wikipedia
Opposition à l'oppression sociale, institutionnelle et politique des personnes identifiées comme noires, qui diffère selon le contexte historique et géographique. Voir Racisme en France — Wikipédia et Mouvement afro-américain des droits civiques — Wikipédia
Bolshevist
pro-bolshevik
Bolshevism
Bolcheviks
"The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists or Bolsheviki (Russian: большевики, большевик (singular); IPA: [bəlʲʂɨˈvʲik]; derived from большинство bol'shinstvo, "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The RSDLP was a revolutionary socialist political party formed in 1898 in Minsk to unite the various revolutionary organisations of the Russian Empire into one party. In the Second Party Congress vote, the Bolsheviks won on the majority of important issues, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks or Reds came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites, and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in December 1922. The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organisation consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les bolcheviks, bolcheviques ou bolchéviques sont les membres d'une fraction du Parti ouvrier social-démocrate de Russie, créée en 1903 sous la direction de Lénine, devenue un parti indépendant en 1912. Après la révolution russe de février 1917, les bolcheviks prennent le pouvoir au nom des soviets en octobre 1917 dans le cadre de la République socialiste fédérative soviétique de Russie. En 1918, le Parti bolchévique est renommé Parti communiste. Après la mise en place de l'URSS (1922), il devient le Parti communiste de l'Union soviétique (PCUS), ajoutant jusqu'en 1952 à ce nom l'adjectif bolchevik (placé entre parenthèses).» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-bonapartist
Bonapartism
Bonapartisme
"Bonapartism is the political ideology of Napoleon Bonaparte and his followers and successors. It was later used to refer to persons who hoped to restore the House of Bonaparte and its style of government. After Napoleon, the term was applied to the French politicians who seized power in the coup of 18 Brumaire, ruling in the French Consulate and subsequently in the First and Second French Empires under the House of Bonaparte (the family of Bonaparte and his nephew Louis). The term was used more generally for a political movement that advocated a dictatorship or authoritarian centralized state, with a strongman charismatic leader based on anti-elitist rhetoric, army support, and conservatism. Marxism and Leninism developed a vocabulary of political terms that included Bonapartism, derived from their analysis of the career of Napoleon Bonaparte. Karl Marx was a student of Jacobinism and the French Revolution, and was a contemporary critic of the Second Republic and Second Empire. He used "Bonapartism" to refer to a situation in which counter-revolutionary military officers seize power from revolutionaries, and use selective reforms to co-opt the radicalism of the popular classes. Marx argued that in the process, Bonapartists preserve and mask the power of a narrower ruling class. According to his essay "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" (1852), Marx believed that both Bonaparte and his nephew Napoleon III had corrupted revolutions in France in this way. In this document, he drew attention to what he calls the phenomenon's repetitive history by saying: "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, then as farce." More generally, "Bonapartism" may be used to describe the replacement of civilian leadership by military leadership within revolutionary movements or governments. Many modern-day Trotskyists and other leftists use the phrase "left Bonapartist" to describe those, such as Stalin and Mao, who controlled 20th-century bureaucratic socialist regimes. In addition, Leon Trotsky was accused of using his position as commander of the Red Army to gain top-level power after Lenin's death. Noted political scientists and historians greatly differ on the definition and interpretation of Bonapartism. Sudhir Hazareesingh's book The Legend of Napoleon explores numerous interpretations of the term. He says that it refers to a "popular national leader confirmed by popular election, above party politics, promoting equality, progress, and social change, with a belief in religion as an adjunct to the State, a belief that the central authority can transform society and a belief in the 'nation' and its glory and a fundamental belief in national unity." Hazareesingh believes that although recent research shows Napoleon used forced conscription of French troops, some men must have fought believing in Napoleon's ideals. He says that to argue Bonapartism co-opted the masses is an example of the Marxist perspective of false consciousness: the idea that the masses can be manipulated by a few determined leaders in the pursuit of ends. Scholar Raymond Hinnebusch has characterized Hafez al-Asad's regime in Syria as Bonapartist." (DBpedia, 2017)
Le bonapartisme est une famille de pensée politique française, qui s'inspire de l'action de l'empereur Napoléon Ier. Le terme a deux acceptions : * au sens strict, le bonapartisme vise à établir un régime républicain impérial en France à la tête duquel serait placé un membre de la famille de Napoléon Bonaparte ; * au sens large, le" bonapartisme vise à établir un État national à exécutif fort et centralisé mais d'essence républicaine et assis sur la consultation régulière du peuple par le biais de plébiscites. Le bonapartisme n'implique donc pas forcément l'adhésion à un système d'organisation politique héréditaire mais peut au contraire s'accommoder d'une forme républicaine de gouvernement. Il repose sur la fusion des élites et l'adhésion populaire. Ces deux facettes peuvent être distinctes ou confondues, selon les personnes et périodes." (DBpedia, 2017)
boulangist
boulangism
Boulangisme
Followed the three principles of "revenge on Germany", "revision of the constitution", and "the return to monarchy" in frustration with French conservatism. Based on the politics of Georges Ernest Boulanger. See: Georges Ernest Boulanger - Wikipedia
Mouvement politique suivant trois principes qui sont la revenge contre l'Allemagne, la révision de la constitution et le retour à la monarchie, en réponse à la frustration provoquée par le régime conservateur français. S'appuie sur les idées politiques du général Georges Ernest Boulanger. Voir Boulangisme — Wikipédia
british nationalist
pro-British
British nationalism
nationalisme anglais
"British nationalism asserts that the British are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of the British, in a definition of Britishness that may include people of English, Scottish, Welsh, Ulster, Scots and Irish descent. British nationalism is closely associated with British unionism, which seeks to uphold the political union that is the United Kingdom, or strengthen the links between the countries of the United Kingdom. British nationalism's unifying identity descends from the ancient Britons who dwelt on the island of Great Britain. British nationalism grew to include people outside Great Britain, in Ireland, because of the 1542 Crown of Ireland Act, which declared that the crown of Ireland was to be held by the ruling monarch of England as well as Anglo-Irish calls for unity with Britain. It is characterised as a "powerful but ambivalent force in British politics". In its moderate form, British nationalism has been a civic nationalism, emphasising both cohesion and diversity of the people of the United Kingdom, its dependencies, and its former colonies. Recently however, nativist nationalism has arisen based on fear of Britain being swamped by immigrants; this anti-immigrant nativist nationalism has manifested politically in the British National Party and other nativist nationalist movements. Politicians, such as British Prime Minister David Cameron of the Conservative Party and his direct predecessor Gordon Brown of the Labour Party, have sought to promote British nationalism as a progressive cause." (DBpedia, 2017)
free market capitalism
capitalist
capitalism
capitalisme
Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive markets. In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment is determined by the owners of the factors of production in financial and capital markets, and prices and the distribution of goods are mainly determined by competition in the market. Economists, political economists, and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism, and state capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition, and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets, the role of intervention and regulation, and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism;the extent to which different markets are free, as well as the rules defining private property, are matters of politics and of policy. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which combine elements of free markets with state intervention, and in some cases, with economic planning. Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different times, places, and cultures. Following the decline of mercantilism, mixed capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world and continue to spread See: Capitalism - Wikipedia
Le capitalisme est un concept à la fois économique, sociologique et politique qui caractérise un système s'appuyant sur la propriété privée des moyens de production. Sa définition donne lieu à des variations dans l'espace et dans le temps, et en fonction des sensibilités politiques des personnes qui emploient le terme. On considère généralement que ses fondements sont l'accumulation du capital productif et la réalisation du profit. Voir Capitalisme — Wikipédia
Chartist
Chartism was a working-class movement for political reform in Britain which existed from 1838 to 1858. It took its name from the People's Charter of 1838 and was a national protest movement, with particular strongholds of support in Northern England, the East Midlands, the Staffordshire Potteries, the Black Country, and the South Wales Valleys. Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839, 1842, and 1848, when petitions signed by millions of working people were presented to the House of Commons. The strategy employed was to use the scale of support which these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings demonstrated to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage.
children's rights
children's rights advocate
children's rights activist
campaigner against child prostitution
children's welfare
défense des droits des enfants
Advocacy or activism for the rights or welfare of children. See: Category:Child welfare - Wikipedia
Militantisme et activisme pour les droits et le bien-être des enfants. Voir Droits de l'enfant — Wikipédia
christian pacifist
Christian pacifism
Pacifisme chrétien
"Christian pacifism is the theological and ethical position that any form of violence is incompatible with the Christian faith. Christian pacifists state that Jesus himself was a pacifist who taught and practiced pacifism and that his followers must do likewise. Notable Christian pacifists include Martin Luther King, Jr., Leo Tolstoy, and Ammon Hennacy. Hennacy believed that adherence to Christianity required not just pacifism but, because governments inevitably threatened or used force to resolve conflicts, anarchism. However, most Christian pacifists, including the peace churches, Christian Peacemaker Teams, and individuals such as John Howard Yoder, make no claim to be anarchists." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le pacifisme chrétien est un courant de pensée et d'action à l'intérieur du christianisme. Il désigne, a minima, le refus de la participation à la mise à mort d'un être humain à la guerre pour motif de conscience, et plus largement, le refus d'utiliser des moyens violents pour se défendre, parvenir à ses fins ou opposer une résistance. Bien qu'étant la position d'origine des premiers chrétiens , le pacifisme est considéré comme la position minoritaire au sein des Églises chrétiennes, la position dominante dans l'histoire de l'Église étant la doctrine de la guerre juste. Ce refus d'attenter à la vie de la personne humaine se fonde sur l'un ou plusieurs les aspects bibliques-théologiques suivants : l'être humain comme créature et image de Dieu à ne pas tuer (Ge 1.27 ; Ge 9.5-6)la parole du Décalogue (Ex 20,13) : «Tu ne tueras point», et l'extension de son champ d'applicationl'enseignement du Christ («Ne vous opposez pas [violemment] au mal» (Mt 5.39) ; «Aimez vos ennemis» (Mt 5.44)l'exemple de la vie du Christ (1 Pi 2.21-23)la mort du Christ interprétée comme don de soi et comme manière de répondre au mal (Rm 5.6-10)la résurrection du Christ vue comme la justification par Dieu de la manière de vivre du Messie (Phil 2.6-11)l'enseignement des apôtres («Soyez en paix avec tous» (Rm 12.18) ; «Sois vainqueur du mal par le bien» (Rm 12.21) Le pacifisme chrétien rejoint aujourd'hui l'ensemble de ce qui peut se désigner par le vocable de non-violence et qui se décline en dialogue, résolution de conflits, médiation, protestation non-violence, justice restaurative, etc. Le pacifisme chrétien et la non-violence sont notamment connu en milieu catholique à travers les efforts de pacification de la communauté de Sant'Egidio et les nombreuses missions diplomatiques de Jean-Paul II[réf. nécessaire]. Au sein du protestantisme, la résistance spirituelle au nazisme suscitée par le pasteur André Trocmé autour du Chambon-sur-Lignon, le combat de Martin Luther King pour les droits civiques, les Équipes chrétiennes d'action pour la paix (en) (Christian Peacemaker Teams), ou encore le pardon accordé par la communauté amish après la tuerie dans l'école de Nickel Mines en Pennsylvanie ont largement popularisé la non-violence.» (DBpedia, 2017)
christian socialist
Christian socialism
socialisme chrétien
"Christian socialism is a form of religious socialism based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Many Christian socialists believe capitalism to be idolatrous and rooted in greed, which some Christian denominations consider a mortal sin. Christian socialists identify the cause of inequality to be the greed that they associate with capitalism. Christian socialism became a major movement in the United Kingdom beginning in the 1960s through the Christian Socialist Movement, since 2013 known as Christians on the Left. Other earlier figures are also viewed as Christian socialists, such as the nineteenth century writers Frederick Denison Maurice (The Kingdom of Christ, 1838), John Ruskin (Unto This Last, 1862), Charles Kingsley (The Water-Babies, 1863), Thomas Hughes (Tom Brown's Schooldays, 1857), Frederick James Furnivall (co-creator of the Oxford English Dictionary), Adin Ballou (Practical Christian Socialism, 1854), and Francis Bellamy (a Baptist minister and the author of the United States' Pledge of Allegiance)." (DBpedia, 2017)
civil libertarian
civil libertarianism
mouvement libertaire
"Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasises the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state, a corporation, social norms imposed through peer pressure, etc.). Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights." (DBpedia, 2017)
personal rights advocate
pro civil rights
civil rights movement
droits civiques
"Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organisations, and private individuals. They ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society and state without discrimination or repression. Civil rights include the ensuring of people's physical and mental integrity, life, and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as race, gender, national origin, colour, age, political affiliation, ethnicity, religion, or disability; and individual rights such as privacy and the freedoms of thought, speech, religion, press, assembly, and movement. Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law, such as the rights of the accused, including the right to a fair trial; the right to due process; the right to seek redress or a legal remedy; and rights of participation in civil society and politics such as freedom of association, the right to assemble, the right to petition, the right of self-defense, and the right to vote. Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with economic, social, and cultural rights comprising the second portion). The theory of three generations of human rights considers this group of rights to be "first-generation rights", and the theory of negative and positive rights considers them to be generally negative rights." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les droits civiques désignent les protections et privilèges des libertés fondamentales accordés à tous les citoyens par la loi contre toutes les discriminations.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Women's Co-operative Guild
co-operative movement
mouvement pour l'économie sociale
Supporter of the co-operative movement. See History of the cooperative movement - Wikipedia
Défense de l'économie sociale, voir Histoire de l'économie sociale — Wikipédia
communalist
communalism
municipalisme libertaire
"Communalism usually refers to a system that integrates communal ownership and federations of highly localised independent communities. A prominent libertarian socialist, Murray Bookchin, defines communalism as "a theory of government or a system of government in which independent communes participate in a federation", as well as "the principles and practice of communal ownership". This usage of communalism appears to have emerged during the late 20th century to distinguish commune-based systems from other political movements and/or governments espousing (if not actually practicing) similar ideas. In particular, earlier communities and movements advocating such practices that were often described as "anarchist", "socialist" and/or "communist". Many historical communities practicing utopian socialism or anarchist communism did implement internal rules of communalist property ownership in the context of federated communalism. It is at least theoretically possible for a federation of communes to include communes which do not practice communalist rules of property, which is to say, that the overall national government may be a federation of communes, but that private property rather than communalist property is the order within each such commune. Karl Marx, often viewed as the founder of modern communism, criticized older forms, including primitive communism and/or utopian socialism, as poorly conceived and/or prone to disintegration in practise. Communalism in the form described above is distinct from the predominant usage in South Asian forms of English: allegiance to a particular ethnic and/or religious group rather than to a broader society. As such, this usage is synonymous with sectarianism and associated with communal violence." (DBpedia, 2017)
communist
Communist Party
christian communist
communism
communisme
"In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal") is a social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money, and the state. Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism (anarchist communism), and the political ideologies grouped around both. All these hold in common the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic system, capitalism, that in this system, there are two major social classes: the working class – who must work to survive, and who make up a majority of society – and the capitalist class – a minority who derive profit from employing the proletariat, through private ownership of the means of production (the physical and institutional means with which commodities are produced and distributed), and that political, social and economic conflict between these two classes will trigger a fundamental change in the economic system, and by extension a wide-ranging transformation of society. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to this analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le communisme (du latin communis – commun, universel) est un ensemble de doctrines politiques issues du socialisme et, pour la plupart, du marxisme, opposées au capitalisme et visant à l'instauration d'une société sans classes sociales. Plus largement, ce terme est associé au mouvement communiste international né après la Première Guerre mondiale, fruit d'une scission de la IIe Internationale provoquée par les bolcheviks. Il renvoie également, dans le contexte de la guerre froide, à une alliance géopolitique (bloc communiste) dominée par l'Union soviétique, ainsi qu'au régime politique à parti unique, dictatorial ou totalitaire, en vigueur dans les pays du bloc communiste. Dans son sens d'origine, le communisme est une forme d'organisation sociale sans classes, sans État et sans monnaie, où les biens matériels seraient partagés. Au XIXe siècle, le mot «communisme» entre dans le vocabulaire du socialisme. Il se rattache en particulier à l'œuvre de Karl Marx et Friedrich Engels - qui le reprennent à leur compte en 1848 dans le Manifeste du Parti communiste - et, par extension, à l'école de pensée marxiste. En 1917, les bolcheviks, dirigés par Lénine, prennent le pouvoir en Russie lors de la Révolution d'Octobre. Cet évènement change radicalement le sens du mot communisme : il désigne désormais un mouvement politique international, né d'une scission du socialisme, et qui se reconnaît dans le courant révolutionnaire incarné par les bolcheviks comme dans l'interprétation du marxisme par Lénine. Le communisme se présente désormais comme la véritable expression politique du mouvement ouvrier, au détriment de la social-démocratie dont il est issu. Selon cette acception, le communisme constitue l'un des phénomènes les plus importants du XXe siècle, qui a pu être qualifié de «siècle du communisme» tant cette idéologie y a tenu un rôle moteur. Lénine et ses partisans créent en 1919 l'Internationale communiste (dite Troisième Internationale, ou Komintern) afin de regrouper à l'échelle internationale les partisans de la Russie soviétique. L'Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques (URSS), fondée en 1922 pour fédérer les territoires de l'ex-empire russe, dirige via le Komintern les activités des partis communistes du monde entier : elle domine ainsi la mouvance communiste, malgré l'existence de courants dissidents. Après la mort de Lénine, Joseph Staline s'impose comme le maître absolu de l'URSS et du mouvement communiste mondial. En 1941, durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'URSS est attaquée par l'Allemagne nazie avec laquelle elle avait conclu un pacte deux ans plus tôt. Les troupes soviétiques jouent alors un rôle déterminant dans la défaite du nazisme. Après-guerre, l'URSS accède au rang de superpuissance : elle occupe militairement l'essentiel de l'Europe de l'Est, dont les pays deviennent des États communistes, formant le bloc de l'Est. La Chine bascule également dans le camp communiste en 1949. Le Rideau de fer qui sépare l'Europe et la progression spectaculaire du communisme amènent le monde à se diviser en «blocs» rivaux : la guerre froide oppose ainsi durant plusieurs décennies les pays communistes au «monde libre», au sein duquel les États-Unis constituent la superpuissance rivale de l'URSS. La Chine de Mao occupe quant à elle une place à part après la rupture sino-soviétique. À l'apogée de l'influence du communisme dans le monde, un quart de l'humanité vit dans des pays communistes. Dans les années 1980, l'URSS tente de remédier à sa sclérose économique et politique en lançant un mouvement de réformes, la perestroïka : mais ce processus aboutit à l'effondrement général des régimes communistes européens entre 1989 et 1991. Par la suite, bien qu'en net déclin, le communisme ne disparaît pas : si des partis anciennement communistes ont adopté d'autres identités, d'autres ont conservé leur nom et sont associés au pouvoir dans certains pays. À Cuba, au Viêt Nam, au Laos et en Corée du Nord, des pays communistes existent encore, sans se conformer à un mode de gouvernement unique. La République populaire de Chine, pays le plus peuplé de la planète, est toujours dirigée par un Parti communiste ; convertie à l'économie de marché, elle est aujourd'hui l'une des principales puissances mondiales. En tant que dictatures à parti unique, les régimes communistes se sont tous rendus coupables de violations des droits de l'homme ; certains, comme l'URSS sous Staline et la Chine sous Mao, se sont livrés à des crimes de masse, le nombre de leurs victimes s'élevant à plusieurs millions de morts. Le bilan historique du communisme, qui englobe un ensemble de réalités très différentes les unes des autres, demeure cependant, du fait même de sa complexité, contrasté et polémique. Le communisme a fait l'objet de diverses approches historiographiques concurrentes, longtemps handicapées par la difficulté d'accès aux documents et par les contextes politiques nationaux et internationaux. La fin de la guerre froide et l'ouverture des archives du bloc de l'Est ont depuis bouleversé le champ des études sur le communisme, sans mettre fin à toutes les controverses autour du sujet.» (DBpedia, 2017)
conscientious objection
objection de conscience
"A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, disability, or religion. In general, conscientious objector status is considered only in the context of military conscription and is not applicable to volunteer military forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to an alternative civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service. Some conscientious objectors consider themselves pacifist, non-interventionist, non-resistant, non-aggressionist, or antimilitarist. On March 8, 1995 the United Nations Commission on Human Rights resolution 1995/83 stated that "persons performing military service should not be excluded from the right to have conscientious objections to military service." This was re-affirmed in 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that "persons [already] performing military service may develop conscientious objections." A number of organisations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objectors Day. The term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military-industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience." (DBpedia, 2017)
conservative
conservatism
conservatisme
"Conservatism as a political and social philosophy promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasising stability and continuity, while others, called reactionaries, oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were". The first established use of the term in a political context originated with François-René de Chateaubriand in 1818, during the period of Bourbon restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution. The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, has since been used to describe a wide range of views. There is no single set of policies that are universally regarded as conservative, because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place and time. Thus conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a wide range of issues. Edmund Burke, an 18th-century politician who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution, is credited as one of the main theorists of conservatism in Britain in the 1790s. According to Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959, "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself."" (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le conservatisme est une philosophie politique qui est en faveur des valeurs traditionnelles et qui s'oppose au progressisme. Les cultures ayant chacune des valeurs différentes, les conservateurs selon leur culture ont des buts différents. Mais tous les conservateurs promeuvent la défense (statu quo) ou le retour à des valeurs établies (statu quo ante). Pour Michael Freeden, le conservatisme croit seulement en un changement limité de ce qui est naturel ou organique ; aussi, pour lui, l'ordre social est indépendant de la volonté humaine. Le terme vient de «conserver» ; du latin conservare, «maintenir, observer (une loi, une coutume)» composé de servare «préserver, garder». Bien que ce ne soit pas une idéologie en soi, le conservatisme est une philosophie politique dont les idées sont en grande partie liées à leur contexte d'existence. Il est défini en partie par l'accent mis sur la tradition comme source de sagesse, bien au-delà de ce qui peut être démontré ou explicitement établi. Il se fonde sur la conservation d'un ordre préétabli, selon les conventions, chacun à sa place.» (DBpedia, 2017)
conservative feminism
féminisme conservateur
Feminism that tends towards social conservativism. See Feminism - Wikipedia
Féminisme qui tend vers le conservatisme social. Voir Féminisme — Wikipédia
constitutional feminist
constitutionalist
constitutionalism
Constitutionnalisme
"Constitutionalism is "a complex of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the principle that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a body of fundamental law". Political organisations are constitutional to the extent that they "contain institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority". As described by political scientist and constitutional scholar David Fellman: Constitutionalism is descriptive of a complicated concept, deeply embedded in historical experience, which subjects the officials who exercise governmental powers to the limitations of a higher law. Constitutionalism proclaims the desirability of the rule of law as opposed to rule by the arbitrary judgment or mere fiat of public officials…. Throughout the literature dealing with modern public law and the foundations of statecraft the central element of the concept of constitutionalism is that in political society government officials are not free to do anything they please in any manner they choose; they are bound to observe both the limitations on power and the procedures which are set out in the supreme, constitutional law of the community. It may therefore be said that the touchstone of constitutionalism is the concept of limited government under a higher law." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le constitutionnalisme est une théorie du droit qui insiste sur le rôle et la fonction de la Constitution dans la hiérarchie des normes par rapport à la loi, ainsi que sur le contrôle de constitutionnalité des lois. On l'oppose parfois au légicentrisme, qui défend la suprématie de la loi, émanation de la souveraineté populaire. En droit international, le constitutionnalisme est une conception qui tend à s'opposer au pluralisme juridique.» (DBpedia, 2017)
conservative party
tory
Tory radical
disaffected Tories
Tory Party (Britain)
Tory Party
Conservative Party (UK)
Parti Conservateur (Royaume-Uni)
"The Tories were members of two political parties which existed, sequentially, in the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York (who eventually became James II of England and VII of Scotland). This party ceased to exist as an organised political entity in the early 1760s, although it was used as a term of self-description by some political writers. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. The Earl of Liverpool was succeeded by fellow Tory Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, whose term included the Catholic Emancipation, which occurred mostly due to the election of Daniel O'Connell as a Catholic MP from Ireland. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, many of which were controlled by Tories. In the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, which began to transform the Tories into the Conservative Party. However, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party, whose members are commonly still referred to as Tories." (DBpedia, 2017)
Covenanting
Covenanters
Covenantaire
"The Covenanters were a Scottish Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent that of England and Ireland, during the 17th century. Presbyterian denominations tracing their history to the Covenanters and often incorporating the name continue the ideas and traditions in Scotland and internationally. They derive their name from the term covenant after the Covenant between God and the Israelites in the Old Testament. There were two important covenants in Scottish history, the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Covenantaires formèrent un important mouvement religieux et politique en Écosse au XVIIe siècle. Du point de vue religieux, ce mouvement s'attacha surtout à promouvoir et à développer le presbytérianisme, et à en faire une forme de gouvernement souhaitée par le peuple, en opposition avec l'Épiscopalisme, qui avait les faveurs de la couronne. Du point de vue politique, ce mouvement vit d'importantes évolutions du caractère et du fonctionnement du Parlement écossais, qui commença à se démarquer progressivement de ses origines médiévales. Dans son ensemble, ce mouvement était essentiellement conservateur dans le ton, mais il amorça une révolution qui embrasa l'Écosse, l'Angleterre et l'Irlande, et qui fut appelée les guerres des Trois Royaumes. Le nom Covenantaire provient de «covenant», qui est un mot de l'ancien français, passé dans le moyen anglais, qui signifiait à l'origine convention, chose convenue, et qui désigna, dans la loi anglaise, un accord formel, une promesse solennelle. En Écosse, le terme prit le sens biblique d'«Alliance» ou de «Promesse». Le premier engagement de ce genre fut signé par les Écossais de toutes les classes, en 1588, lorsque Philippe II menaçait l'Angleterre et la Réforme par sa fameuse Invincible Armada. Il contenait une profession de foi protestante, une réprobation de l'Église romaine et un serment de défense mutuelle et d'union. La destruction de la flotte espagnole rendit cette confédération sans objet. Au siècle suivant, le «National Covenant» de 1638, qui prit comme base des documents précédents du même genre, était surtout intéressé à préserver la Réforme de toute innovation issue de la couronne britannique. Son document jumeau de 1643, «Solemn League and Covenant», se préoccupait également de religion, même s'il s'agissait principalement d'un traité d'alliance entre les covenantaires d'Écosse et le Parlement d'Angleterre, soucieux de se soutenir lors de la guerre civile de plus en plus violente contre le roi Charles Ier.» (DBpedia, 2017)
democrat
democratic
Democrat (US)
pro-democracy
An advocate of democracy. See Democracy - Wikipedia.
anti-anglican
anti-tithes
anti-episcopal
anti-episcopalian
disestablishmentarianism
sécularisme anglais
"Disestablishmentarianism refers to campaigns to sever links between church and state, particularly in relation to the Church of England as an established church. It was initially a movement in the United Kingdom in the 18th century. The established churches in Wales and Ireland could not count on even nominal adherence by a majority of the population of those countries. In Ireland, the predominantly Roman Catholic population campaigned against the position of the established Anglican Church of Ireland - eventually disestablished in Ireland from 1 January 1871. In England there was a campaign by Liberals, dissenters and nonconformists to disestablish the Church of England in the 19th century. The campaigners were called "Liberationists" (the "Liberation Society" was founded by Edward Miall in 1844). This campaign failed, but nearly all of the legal disabilities of nonconformists were gradually dismantled. The campaign for disestablishment was revived in the 20th century when Parliament rejected the 1929 revision of the Book of Common Prayer, leading to calls for separation of Church and State to prevent political interference in matters of worship. In the late 20th century, reform of the House of Lords also brought into question the position of the Lords Spiritual. Nick Clegg, the former Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Liberal Democrats, said in April 2014 that he thought the Church of England and the British state should be separated "in the long run". Prime Minister David Cameron, responding to Clegg's comments, said that disestablishmentarianism is "a long-term Liberal idea, but it is not a Conservative one" and that he believed having an established church works well. The Church of England was disestablished in Wales in 1920, becoming the Church in Wales. An Act of the British Parliament enabling the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland was passed in 1869, coming into effect on 1 January 1871. The Church of Scotland was disestablished in 1929 but remains the largest church in Scotland." (DBpedia, 2017)
dress reformer
Rational Dress Movement
dress reform
réforme vestimentaire
"Victorian dress reform was an objective of the Victorian dress reform movement (also known as the rational dress movement) of the middle and late Victorian era, comprising various reformers who proposed, designed, and wore clothing considered more practical and comfortable than the fashions of the time. Dress reformists were largely middle class women involved in the first wave of feminism in the United States and in Britain, from the 1850s through the 1890s. The movement emerged in the Progressive Era along with calls for temperance, women's education, suffrage and moral purity. Dress reform called for emancipation from the "dictates of fashion", expressed a desire to "cover the limbs as well as the torso adequately," and promoted "rational dress". The movement had its greatest success in the reform of women's undergarments, which could be modified without exposing the wearer to social ridicule. Dress reformers were also influential in persuading women to adopt simplified garments for athletic activities such as bicycling or swimming. The movement was much less concerned with men's clothing, although it initiated the widespread adoption of knitted wool union suits or long johns. Some proponents of the movement established dress reform parlors, or storefronts, where women could buy sewing patterns for the newfangled garments, or buy them directly." (DBpedia, 2017)
Dreyfusard
Supporters of Captain Alfred Dreyfus in his prosecution by the French military. See: Dreyfus affair - Wikipedia
Défenseurs du capitaine Alfred Dreyfus lors de son procès. Voir Affaire Dreyfus — Wikipédia
educational reform
education reformer
educationalist
state education movement
education reform
réforme de l'éducation
"Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed. However, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs (i.e., student achievement). In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the primary source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market (in the form of an input-output system), where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests. As a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations. This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition. As a consequence, competition creates inequality which has continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproducing the achievement gap among diverse youth. Overall, education reform has and continues to be used as a substitute for needed economic reforms in the United States. The one constant for all forms of education reform includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth, and well-being. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students and society. From ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor. Historically, this was available only to the most wealthy. Encyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education. Related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on "why" and "which" questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles. This path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early modern age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin and Greek. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on more scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers. Some reformers incorporated several motivations, e.g. Maria Montessori, who both "educated for peace" (a social goal), and to "meet the needs of the child" (A humanistic goal). In historic Prussia, an important motivation for the invention of Kindergarten was to foster national unity by teaching a national language while children were young enough that learning a language was easy. Reform has taken many forms and directions. Throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organisation and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations." (DBpedia, 2017)
egalitarian
egalitarianism
Égalitarisme
"Egalitarianism (from French égal, meaning "equal")—or equalitarianism—is a trend of thought that favors equality for all people. Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status, according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the term has two distinct definitions in modern English: either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social, and civil rights; or as a social philosophy advocating the removal of economic inequalities among people, economic egalitarianism, or the decentralization of power. Some sources define egalitarianism as the point of view that equality reflects the natural state of humanity." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'égalitarisme est une doctrine politique prônant l'égalité des citoyens en matière politique, économique et/ou sociale, selon les contextes. Dans le sens vulgaire, l'égalitarisme désigne plus particulièrement la doctrine qui a pour valeur politique suprême l'égalité matérielle de tous.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Egyptian nationalism
nationalisme égyptien
"Egyptian nationalism refers to the nationalism of Egyptians and Egyptian culture. Egyptian nationalism has typically been a civic nationalism that has emphasised the unity of Egyptians regardless of ethnicity or religion. Egyptian nationalism first manifested itself in Pharaonism beginning in the 19th century that identified Egypt as being a unique and independent political unit in the world since the era of the Pharaohs in ancient Egypt. Both the Arabic language spoken in modern Egypt and the ancient Egyptian language are Afroasiatic languages. The rule of Muhammad Ali of Egypt led Egypt into an advanced level of socioeconomic development in comparison with Egypt's neighbours, which along with the discoveries of relics of ancient Egyptian civilization, helped to foster Egyptian identity and Egyptian nationalism. The Urabi movement in the 1870s and 1880s was the first major Egyptian nationalist movement that demanded an end to the alleged despotism of the Muhammed Ali family and demanded curbing the growth of European influence in Egypt. It campaigned under the nationalist slogan of "Egypt for Egyptians". After the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, Egyptian nationalism became focused upon ending British colonial rule. Egyptian nationalism reached its peak in popularity in 1919 when revolution against British rule took place in response to wartime deprivations imposed by the British upon Egypt during World War I. Three years of protest and political turmoil followed until Britain unilaterally declared the independence of Egypt in 1922 that was a monarchy, though Britain reserved several areas for British supervision. During the period of the Kingdom of Egypt, Egyptian nationalists remained determined to terminate the remaining British presence in Egypt. Though Arab nationalism rose as a political force in the 1930s, there remained a strong regional attachment to Egypt by those who advocated cooperation with other Arab or Muslim neighbours. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 that overthrew the monarchy and established a republic, Gamal Abdel Nasser rose to power on themes that mixed Arab and Egyptian nationalism. Nasser saw Egypt as the leader of the Arab states and saw Egypt's role as promoting Arab solidarity against both the West and Israel. Egypt was briefly united with Syria from 1958 until 1961 when Syria abandoned the union. Nasser's successors, Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak de-emphasised Arab nationalism and re-emphasised Egyptian nationalism based on Egypt's distinctiveness within the Arab world. Sadat and Mubarak also abandoned Nasser's Arab nationalist conflict with Israel and the West. The Arab Spring in Egypt in 2011 that forced the resignation of Mubarak from power and resulted in multiparty elections, has raised questions over the future of Egyptian nationalism. In particular the previous secular regimes of Nasser, Sadat, and Mubarak avoided direct religious conflicts between the majority Muslims and the minority Coptic Christians through their emphasis on secular Egyptian nationalist culture, while concerns have been raised on whether this Egyptian nationalist culture will remain with the political changes caused by the Arab Spring. This has especially become an issue after a series of episodes of Muslim-Christian violence erupted in Egypt in 2011." (DBpedia, 2017)
elder care activist
elder rights
droit des personnes âgées
"Elder rights are the rights of the aged, who in the United States are not recognized as a constitutionally protected class. Common rights issues faced by elders include age-related job discrimination (such as forced age of retirement), lack of access to medical treatments because of age or age-related obstacles, societal perceptions of ability/disability due to age, and vulnerability to abuse, including financial, physical, psychological, social, and sexual because of diminished capacity and lack of access to/ability to use technology." (DBpedia, 2017)
climate activist
ecologist
environmentalist
green
nature conservationist
environmental causes
environmentalism
Écologisme
"Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of non-human elements. Environmentalism advocates the lawful preservation, restoration and/or improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity. For this reason, concepts such as a land ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology, and the biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly. At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of sustainability. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by the color green, but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as greenwashing. Environmentalism is opposed by anti-environmentalism, which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human contribution to climate change or opposing human advancement." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'écologisme, ou environnementalisme, est à la fois un courant de pensée (idéologie ou philosophie), un corpus de valeurs et de propositions incluant notamment celles du mouvement écologiste. L'orientation de l'activité politique ou parapolitique vise au respect, à la protection, la préservation ou la restauration de l'environnement dans une forme très poussée. James Lovelock, père de la théorie Gaïa, est l'un des représentants les plus célèbres de cette doctrine. Ce mouvement éco-centrique a comme projet la conservation de la nature et le «respect» des équilibres naturels. L'environnementalisme et le mouvement écologiste ont parmi leurs priorités : la conservation des ressources naturelles, la préservation de la «vie sauvage» (wilderness), la lutte contre la dégradation, la fragmentation et la destruction des habitats et des écosystèmes au sens le plus large. Ils définissent de nouveaux rapports territoriaux dans les milieux habités par l'humain, dont les milieux urbains considérés comme les habitats potentiels de substitution et comme cadre de vie d'une part grandissante de l'humanité. Ces différentes demandes sociales et politiques, ou même protestations s'expriment dès le début du XXe siècle : en 1902, une convention internationale pour la protection des oiseaux utiles était signée entre 11 pays d'Europe, et en 1913, le congrès de Berne réclamait une «Protection mondiale de la nature», principalement du constat de la dégradation de la nature par l'homme, notamment par la chasse et la surexploitation de la nature, puis par la pollution et la destruction à grande échelle de milieux naturels (forêts tropicales) notamment.» (DBpedia, 2017)
eugenicist
eugenics
Eugénisme
"Eugenics (/juːˈdʒɛnɪks/; from Greek εὐγενής eugenes "well-born" from εὖ eu, "good, well" and γένος genos, "race, stock, kin") is a set of beliefs and practices that aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population. It is a social philosophy advocating the improvement of human genetic traits through the promotion of higher rates of sexual reproduction for people with desired traits (positive eugenics), or reduced rates of sexual reproduction and sterilization of people with less-desired or undesired traits (negative eugenics), or both. Alternatively, gene selection rather than "people selection" has recently been made possible through advances in genome editing (e.g. CRISPR). The exact definition of eugenics has been a matter of debate since the term was coined. The definition of it as a "social philosophy"—that is, a philosophy with implications for social order—is not universally accepted, and was taken from Frederick Osborn's 1937 journal article "Development of a Eugenic Philosophy". While eugenic principles have been practiced as far back in world history as Ancient Greece, the modern history of eugenics began in the early 20th century when a popular eugenics movement emerged in the United Kingdom and spread to many countries, including the United States, Canada and most European countries. In this period, eugenic ideas were espoused across the political spectrum. Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies meant to improve the genetic stock of their countries. Such programs often included both "positive" measures, such as encouraging individuals deemed particularly "fit" to reproduce, and "negative" measures such as marriage prohibitions and forced sterilization of people deemed unfit for reproduction. People deemed unfit to reproduce often included people with mental or physical disabilities, people who scored in the low ranges of different IQ tests, criminals and deviants, and members of disfavored minority groups. The eugenics movement became negatively associated with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust when many of the defendants at the Nuremberg trials attempted to justify their human rights abuses by claiming there was little difference between the Nazi eugenics programs and the US eugenics programs. In the decades following World War II, with the institution of human rights, many countries gradually abandoned eugenics policies, although some Western countries, among them the United States, continued to carry out forced sterilizations. Since the 1980s and 1990s when new assisted reproductive technology procedures became available, such as gestational surrogacy (available since 1985), preimplantation genetic diagnosis (available since 1989) and cytoplasmic transfer (first performed in 1996), fear about a possible future revival of eugenics and a widening of the gap between the rich and the poor has emerged. A major criticism of eugenics policies is that, regardless of whether "negative" or "positive" policies are used, they are vulnerable to abuse because the criteria of selection are determined by whichever group is in political power. Furthermore, negative eugenics in particular is considered by many to be a violation of basic human rights, which include the right to reproduction. Another criticism is that eugenic policies eventually lead to a loss of genetic diversity, resulting in inbreeding depression instead due to a low genetic variation." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'eugénisme peut être défini comme l'ensemble des méthodes et pratiques visant à intervenir sur le patrimoine génétique de l'espèce humaine, dans le but de le faire tendre vers un idéal déterminé, du moins tel que conçu à l'époque en cours. Il peut être le fruit d'une politique délibérément menée par un État. Il peut aussi être le résultat collectif d'une somme de décisions individuelles convergentes prises par les futurs parents, dans une culture qui valoriserait la recherche de l'«enfant parfait». Le terme eugenics a été employé pour la première fois en 1883 par le scientifique britannique Francis Galton. Les travaux de celui-ci participèrent à la constitution et à la diffusion de la mouvance eugéniste. Mené par des scientifiques et des médecins, le mouvement de promotion de l'eugénisme qui se met en place au tournant du XXe siècle milite en faveur de politiques volontaristes d'éradication des caractères jugés handicapants ou dans le but de favoriser des caractères jugés bénéfiques. Son influence sur la législation s'est traduite principalement dans trois domaines : la mise en place de programmes de stérilisations contraintes là où la culture dominante le permettait, un durcissement de l'encadrement juridique du mariage et des mesures de restriction ou promotion de tel ou tel type d'immigration. Dans la période contemporaine, les progrès du génie génétique et le développement des techniques de procréation médicalement assistée ont ouvert de nouvelles possibilités médicales (diagnostic prénatal, diagnostic préimplantatoire…) qui ont nourri les débats éthiques concernant la convergence des techniques biomédicales et des pratiques sélectives. Singapour a mis en place, ainsi que la Chine, un système qualifié d'eugéniste.» (DBpedia, 2017)
existentialist
existentialism
Existentialisme
"Existentialism (/ɛɡzɪˈstɛnʃəlɪzəm/) is a term applied to the work of certain late-19th- and 20th-century European philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher, though he did not use the term existentialism. He proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or "authentically". Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'existentialisme est un courant philosophique ainsi que littéraire qui postule que l'être humain forme l'essence de sa vie par ses propres actions, celles-ci n'étant pas prédéterminées par des doctrines théologiques, philosophiques ou morales. L'existentialisme considère chaque personne comme un être unique maître de ses actes, de son destin et des valeurs qu'il décide d'adopter. Bien qu'il existe des tendances communes entre les penseurs existentialistes, des différences subsistent : il y a notamment un fossé entre les existentialistes athées comme Jean-Paul Sartre et les philosophes existentiels chrétiens comme Søren Kierkegaard, Paul Tillich ou Gabriel Marcel, sans oublier la philosophie juive de l'existence de Martin Buber et Emmanuel Levinas ou encore musulmane d'Abdennour Bidar. Certains auteurs tels que Albert Camus ou Martin Heidegger ont même refusé d'être étiquetés comme existentialistes. Sartre a livré quant à lui sa propre définition et conception de l'existentialisme et a donné une conférence sur le sujet : L'existentialisme est un humanisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
fascist
fascist party
pro-fascist
fascism
Fascisme
"Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe, influenced by national syndicalism. Fascism originated in Italy during World War I and spread to other European countries. Fascism opposes liberalism, Marxism and anarchism and is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes in the nature of war, society, the state, and technology. The advent of total war and total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilian and combatant. A "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war. The war had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing economic production and logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens. Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete, and they regard the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties. Such a state is led by a strong leader—such as a dictator and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party—to forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society. Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, and the term is instead now usually used pejoratively by political opponents. The descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme fascisme (prononcé [fa.ʃism], calque de la prononciation italienne [faˈʃizmo] ; ou plus rarement [fa.sism]) s'applique au sens étroit à la période mussolinienne de l'histoire italienne et au sens large à un système politique aux caractéristiques inspirées par l'exemple italien mais qui a pu prendre des aspects différents selon les pays. Des débats existent entre les historiens quant à la qualification de certains régimes (France de Vichy, Espagne franquiste...). Le terme même (en italien fascismo) vient du mot «fascio» («faisceau») désignant le rassemblement des fusils au repos ou l'attribut du licteur dans la Rome antique. La différence entre fascisme et totalitarisme fait l'objet de nombreux débats. Le fascisme est un système politique autoritaire qui associe populisme, nationalisme et totalitarisme au nom d'un idéal collectif suprême. À la fois révolutionnaire et conservateur, il s'oppose frontalement à la démocratie parlementaire et à l'État libéral garant des droits individuels. Issu de diverses composantes de la philosophie européenne du XIXe siècle, le fascisme a trouvé dans les circonstances économiques et historiques de l'après-première guerre mondiale le contexte qui lui a permis d'accéder au pouvoir, d'abord en Italie dans les années 1920 avec Mussolini, puis sous une variante accentuée, militariste et terroriste, en Allemagne dans les années 1930 avec le nazisme et Hitler. Niant l'individu et la démocratie au nom de la masse incarnée dans un chef providentiel, le fascisme embrigade les groupes sociaux (jeunesse, milices) et justifie la violence d'État menée contre les opposants assimilés à des ennemis intérieurs, l'unité de la nation devant dépasser et résoudre les antagonismes des classes sociales dans un parti unique. Dans le domaine économique, l'état conduit une politique dirigiste mais maintient la propriété privée et capitaliste.En même temps il rejette la notion d'égalité au nom d'un ordre hiérarchique naturel : il définit un «homme nouveau», un idéal de pureté nationale et raciale qui nourrit en particulier l'antisémitisme, l'homophobie, l'exclusion des personnes atteintes d'un handicap et exalte les corps régénérés ainsi que les vertus de la terre, du sang et de la tradition, tout comme il affirme une hiérarchie entre les peuples forts et les peuples faibles qui doivent être soumis. De façon générale le fascisme exalte la force et s'appuie sur les valeurs traditionnelles de la masculinité, reléguant les femmes dans leur rôle maternel. Il célèbre dans cet esprit les vertus guerrières en développant une esthétique héroïque et grandiose. Révélateur d'une crise de la modernité et luttant contre le sentiment de décadence de la civilisation, le fascisme s'appuie aussi sur la mystique romantique du passé et sur l'émotion collective qu'il met en scène dans la théâtralité dynamique d'une religion civile (culte du chef, uniformes, rassemblements, propagande) et suscite ainsi une fascination idéologique et esthétique avérée. Dans son acception la plus large, le terme est employé pour disqualifier l'ennemi politique (par exemple par les Soviétiques durant la Guerre froide ou certains partis politiques sur l'échiquier politique dans les démocraties libérales), cependant, le fascisme est encore revendiqué par certaines mouvances d'extrême droite (les néofascistes).» (DBpedia, 2017)
Féminisme
feminism
activist for women and children
advocate of female education
anti-sexist
Equality Feminism
feminist movement
feminist reformer
feminist
gender egalitarian
lobby for the rights of women
maternal feminist
moderate feminist
New Woman
non-separatist feminist
political issues concerning women
proto-feminist consciousness
proto-feminist
sexual egalitarian
women's cause
women's issues
Women's Liberation
women's movement
women's rights activist
women's rights
worked to establish pay equity
worked devotedly for the society for promoting the employment of women
advocate for women's education
"Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social rights for women that are equal to those of men. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to promote bodily autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Feminist campaigns are generally considered to be one of the main forces behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with having achieved women's suffrage, gender neutrality in English, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists, including bell hooks, argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims because men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints and aims. Some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism and intersectional feminism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le féminisme est un ensemble de mouvements et d'idées politiques, philosophiques et sociales, qui partagent un but commun : définir, établir et atteindre l'égalité politique, économique, culturelle, personnelle, sociale et juridique entre les femmes et les hommes. Le féminisme a donc pour objectif d'abolir, dans ces différents domaines, les inégalités homme-femme dont les femmes sont les principales victimes, et ainsi de promouvoir les droits des femmes dans la société civile et dans la sphère privée. Si le terme «féminisme» ne prend son sens actuel qu'à la fin du XIXe siècle, les idées de libération de la femme prennent leurs racines dans le siècle des Lumières et se réclament de mouvements plus anciens ou de combats menés dans d'autres contextes historiques. L'objectif principal de la première vague féministe est de réformer les institutions, de sorte que les hommes et les femmes deviennent égaux devant la loi : droit à l'éducation, droit au travail, droit à la maîtrise de leurs biens et droit de vote des femmes constituent les revendications principales de cette période. Le mouvement féministe a produit une grande diversité d'analyses sociologiques et philosophiques. La deuxième vague féministe, qui intervient à la fin des années 1960 avec la naissance du Mouvement de libération des femmes (MLF) et du Women's Lib, a ainsi élaboré plusieurs concepts qui entendent rendre compte de la spécificité du rapport de domination exercé sur les femmes. C'est à cette période qu'est reformulé le concept de patriarcat, élaboré celui de sexisme et que l'accent est mis sur la sphère privée comme lieu privilégié de la domination masculine : le «privé est politique». Les revendications touchant au contrôle de leur corps par les femmes (avortement, contraception) sont placées au premier plan mais, plus largement, c'est à la construction de nouveaux rapports sociaux de sexe qu'appellent les féministes de cette deuxième vague. Dans cette perspective, la notion de «genre» entend «dénaturaliser» les rapports entre les sexes. Sous le nom de troisième vague féministe, on désigne à partir des années 1990, un large ensemble de revendications exprimées par des militantes féministes issues de groupes minoritaires, dans le sillage du Black feminism.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-female-genital-mutilation
against violence to women
feminist anti-violence activism
féminisme contre la violence
Activism opposing violence from a feminist perspective, often but not exclusively violence against women and children, including sexual and domestic violence and female genital mutilation.
Lutte contre la violence dans une perspection féministe, souvent mais non exclusivement dans le cadre des violences envers les femmes et les enfants, incuant les violences sexuelles et conjugales et les mutilations génitales féminines.
feminist internationalism
féminisme internationaliste
Feminist participant in the internationalism movement. See Internationalism (politics) - Wikipedia
Féminisme en lien avec le mouvement internationaliste. Voir Internationalisme — Wikipédia
feminist pacifism
féminisme pacifiste
Feminist participant in the pacifist movement. See Internationalism (politics) - Wikipedia Also see: Pacifism - Wikipedia
Féminisme en lien avec le mouvement pacifiste. Voir Pacifisme — Wikipédia
free trader
free trade movement
mouvement pour le libre-échange
"Free Trader was a political label used in the United Kingdom by several candidates in the 1906 general election and January 1910 general election. Its candidates were in university constituencies, led by John Eldon Gorst, who had been previously elected as a Conservative Party but had split from the party in 1902. The group was in favour of limited social reforms, and in particular of free trade. While several of its candidates received substantial votes, none were elected, and in 1910 Gorst stood instead as a Liberal Party candidate, the remainder of the grouping soon petering out." (DBpedia, 2017)
French nationalism
Nationalisme en France
"French nationalism is the nationalism that asserts that the French are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of the French." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nationalisme en France est apparu au cours du XVIIIe siècle dans la bourgeoisie, sous la plume des philosophes des Lumières. Le nationalisme signifiait pour eux, à cette époque, que c'est le peuple qui incarne le pays, par opposition à la vision de l'ancien régime pour lequel le pays est incarné par le Roi de France. Au XIXe siècle, le nationalisme devient une opposition aux autres nations, voire aux autres peuples, cette idée prenant clairement forme à la fin de ce siècle, dans les mouvements politiques entrant en jeu dans le système démocratique français, est née en 1870, avec la Troisième République. À cette époque, tous les partis manifestent ostensiblement de telles idées nationalistes et anti-allemandes : la Prusse venait de gagner une guerre et avait pris l'Alsace-Lorraine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
gay rights advocate
pro-sexual preference
gay rights movement
Mouvement LGBT
"Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) social movements are social movements that advocate for the equalized acceptance of LGBT people in society. In these movements, LGBTQ people and their allies have a long history of campaigning for what is now generally called LGBTQ rights, sometimes also called gay rights or gay and lesbian rights. Although there is not a primary or an overarching central organisation that represents all LGBT people and their interests, numerous LGBT rights organisations are active worldwide. The earliest organisations to support LGBT rights were formed in the 19th century. A commonly stated goal among these movements is social equality for LGBT people. Some have also focused on building LGBT communities or worked towards liberation for the broader society from biphobia, homophobia, and transphobia. LGBT movements organized today are made up of a wide range of political activism and cultural activity, including lobbying, street marches, social groups, media, art, and research." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mouvement lesbien, gay, bisexuel et transsexuel (LGBT) désigne l'ensemble des mouvements et actions individuelles ou collectives qui cherchent à faire évoluer la perception sociale des minorités sexuelles, de l'homosexualité, de la bisexualité et de la transsexualité. Un objectif fréquemment avancé par ces mouvements est l'égalité des droits civils et sociaux pour les personnes LGBT et, parfois, la construction de communautés LGBT ou la libération de l'ensemble de la société de la biphobie, de l'homophobie et de la transphobie. Il n'existe pas d'organisation qui regroupe l'ensemble des LGBT et de nombreuses structures existent dans différents pays à travers le monde. Le mouvement se concrétise notamment par des actions militantes, culturelles et artistiques ou des manifestations de rue telle que la Marche des fiertés.» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-German
German nationalism
nationalisme allemand
"German nationalism is the idea that asserts that Germans are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of Germans. The earliest origins of German nationalism began with the birth of Romantic nationalism during the Napoleonic Wars when Pan-Germanism started to rise. Advocacy of a German nation began to become an important political force in response to the invasion of German territories by France under Napoleon. After the rise and fall of Nazi Germany during World War II, German nationalism has been generally viewed in the country as taboo. However, during the Cold War, German nationalism arose that supported the reunification of East and West Germany that was achieved in 1990. German nationalism has faced difficulties in promoting a united German identity as well as facing opposition within Germany. The Catholic-Protestant divide in Germany at times created extreme tension and hostility between Catholic and Protestant Germans after 1871, such as in response to the policy of Kulturkampf in Prussia by German Chancellor and Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck, that sought to dismantle Catholic culture in Prussia, provoking outrage amongst Germany's Catholics and resulting in the rise of the pro-Catholic Centre Party and the Bavarian People's Party. There have been rival nationalists within Germany, particularly Bavarian nationalists who claim that the terms that Bavaria entered into Germany in 1871 were controversial and have claimed the German government has long intruded into the domestic affairs of Bavaria. Outside of modern-day Germany in Austria, there are Austrian nationalists who have rejected unification of Austria with Germany on the basis of preserving Austrians' Catholic religious identity from the potential danger posed by being part of a Protestant-majority Germany." (DBpedia, 2017)
Girondin
Gironde (Révolution française)
"The Girondins or Girondists were members of the Gironba, a political group operating in France from 1791 to 1795 during the French Revolution. The Girondins were active within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. They were part of the Jacobin movement, though not every Girondin was a member of the Jacobin Club. The Girondins campaigned for the end of the monarchy but then resisted the spiraling momentum of the Revolution. They came into conflict with The Mountain (Montagnards), a radical faction within the Jacobin Club. This conflict eventually led to the fall of the Girondins and their mass execution, the beginning of the Reign of Terror. The Girondins comprised a group of loosely affiliated individuals rather than an organized political party, and the name was at first informally applied because the most prominent exponents of their point of view were deputies to the Legislative Assembly from the department of Gironde in southwest France. The term became standard with Lamartine's history in 1847. Girondin leader Jacques-Pierre Brissot proposed an ambitious military plan to spread the Revolution—one that Napoleon later achieved. He called on the Convention to dominate Western Europe by conquering the Rhineland, Poland, and Holland, with a goal of creating a protective ring of satellite republics in Britain, Spain and Italy by 1795. The Girondins were thus the war party in 1792–93. Other prominent Girondins included Jean Marie Roland and his wife Madame Roland. They had an ally in the English-born, sometime American, activist Thomas Paine. Brissot and Madame Roland were executed and Jean Roland (who had gone into hiding) committed suicide when he learned what had transpired. Paine was arrested and imprisoned but narrowly escaped execution. The famous painting Death of Marat depicts the killing of the fiery radical journalist (and denouncer of the Girondins) Jean-Paul Marat by the Girondin sympathizer Charlotte Corday, who was executed." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Certains Girondins, comme Condorcet, Brissot, Roland, Guadet, Vergniaud, Isnard, Ducos et Buzot étaient des républicains convaincus. Ses membres, pour la plupart inscrits au club des Jacobins à Paris ou en province, constituaient l'aile la plus avancée de l'Assemblée législative, avant de représenter l'aile droite de la Convention nationale face aux Montagnards, qui étaient en force parmi les députés de Paris, et incarnés par les figures de Robespierre, Danton ou Marat. Les affrontements violents entre Girondins et Montagnards dominent les premiers mois de la Convention.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Greek nationalism
nationliste grec
"Greek nationalism (or Hellenic nationalism) refers to the nationalism of Greeks and Greek culture. As an ideology, Greek nationalism originated and evolved in pre-modern times. It became a major political movement beginning in the 18th century, which culminated in the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) against the Ottoman Empire. It became a potent movement in Greece shortly prior to, and during World War I under the leadership of nationalist figure Eleutherios Venizelos who pursued the Megali Idea and managed to liberate Greece in the Balkan Wars and after World War I, briefly annexed the region of Izmir before it was retaken by Turkey. Today Greek nationalism remains important in the Greco-Turkish dispute over Cyprus." (DBpedia, 2017)
Guelph
Guelph party (Florence)
Guelfes et gibelins
The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, respectively, in the Italian city-states of Central and Northern Italy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, rivalry between these two parties formed a particularly important aspect of the internal politics of medieval Italy. The struggle for power between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire had arisen with the Investiture Controversy, which began in 1075 and ended with the Concordat of Worms in 1122. The division between the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Italy, however, persisted until the 15th century.
«Les guelfes et les gibelins sont deux factions (parti ou, plus souvent, brigate ou sette) médiévales qui s'opposèrent militairement, politiquement et culturellement dans l'Italie des Duecento et Trecento. À l'origine, elles soutenaient respectivement deux dynasties qui se disputaient le trône du Saint-Empire : la pars Guelfa appuyait les prétentions de la dynastie des «Welfs» et de la papauté, puis de la maison d'Anjou, la pars Gebellina, celles des Hohenstaufen, et au-delà celles du Saint-Empire. Conflit en apparence limité au Saint-Empire, l'opposition entre Guelfes et Gibelins va se transporter dans diverses parties d'Europe, principalement dans les villes de la péninsule italienne. Dans cette bipolarisation, parfois surestimée, les allégeances dynastiques sont parfois secondaires, les adhésions fluctuantes, et il faut attendre le règne de Frédéric II pour que papauté et empire deviennent des symboles forts de ralliement et que se construise une véritable division antithétique. Ce clivage trouve des manifestations dans le domaine civique et religieux et cristallise les tensions entre les villes italiennes, au sein de leurs élites et parfois entre la ville et son contado. L'écho du conflit se manifeste à des époques ultérieures, en revêtant de nouveaux caractères et en stigmatisant des oppositions idéologiques nouvelles.» (DBpedia, 2017)
House of Hanover
Maison de Hanovre
"The House of Hanover is a German royal dynasty that ruled the Electorate and then the Kingdom of Hanover, and that also provided monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland from 1714 and ruled the United Kingdom until the death of Queen Victoria in 1901. The House of Hanover was formally named the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Hanover line, as it was originally a cadet branch of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The senior branch became extinct in 1884, and the House of Hanover is now the only surviving branch of the House of Welf, which is the senior branch of the House of Este. The current head of the House of Hanover is Ernst August, Prince of Hanover." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La Maison de Hanovre est une dynastie royale allemande qui a régné sur le duché de Brunswick-Lunebourg (en allemand Braunschweig-Lüneburg), le royaume de Hanovre, le royaume de Grande-Bretagne, puis du Royaume-Uni. Elle succède à la Maison Stuart sur le trône britannique en 1714 et s'y maintient jusqu'à la mort de Victoria en 1901. Elle est parfois appelée Maison de Brunswick-Lüneburg. À la mort de Victoria, le trône du Royaume-Uni est passé dans la maison de Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha en la personne d'Édouard VII du Royaume-Uni, devenue la maison Windsor en 1917.» (DBpedia, 2017)
housing activism
housing charity
housing movement
mouvement pour le droit au logement
Advocacy or activism related to housing for the poor or otherwise disadvantaged.
Militantisme et lutte en faveur du droit au logement pour les plus démunis et autres personnes défavorisées. Voir Droit au logement — Wikipédia
human rights
droits de l'homme
Advocacy or activism in support of human rights. Human rights - Wikipedia
Militantisme et lutte en faveur des droits humains. Voir Droits de l'homme — Wikipédia
humanist
humanism
Humanisme
"Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasises the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. The term was coined by theologian Friedrich Niethammer at the beginning of the 19th century. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'humanisme est un courant culturel européen, trouvant ses origines en Italie, principalement autour de la Toscane, qui s'est développé à la Renaissance. Renouant avec la civilisation gréco-romaine, les intellectuels de l'époque manifestent un vif appétit de savoir (philologie notamment). Considérant que l'Homme est en possession de capacités intellectuelles potentiellement illimitées, ils considèrent la quête du savoir et la maîtrise des diverses disciplines comme nécessaires au bon usage de ces facultés. Ils prônent la vulgarisation de tous les savoirs, dont religieux ; la parole divine doit être accessible à toute personne, quelles que soient ses origines ou sa langue (traduction de la Bible par Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples en 1523). Ainsi, cet humanisme vise à diffuser plus clairement le patrimoine culturel. L'individu, correctement instruit, reste libre et pleinement responsable de ses actes dans la croyance de son choix. Les notions de liberté ou libre arbitre, de tolérance, d'indépendance, d'ouverture et de curiosité sont, de ce fait, indissociables de la théorie humaniste classique. Par extension, on désigne par «humaniste» toute pensée qui met au premier plan de ses préoccupations le développement des qualités essentielles de l'être humain. Une vaste catégorie de philosophies portant sur l'éthique affirme la dignité et la valeur de tous les individus, fondée sur la capacité de déterminer le bien et le mal par le recours à des qualités humaines universelles, en particulier la rationalité. L'humanisme implique un engagement à la recherche de la vérité et de la moralité par l'intermédiaire des moyens humains, en particulier les sciences, en solidarité avec l'humanité. En mettant l'accent sur la capacité d'auto-détermination, l'humanisme rejette la validité des justifications transcendantes de l'époque, alors éloignée des questions phénoménologiques du XXe siècle, jugées comme une dépendance à l'égard du surnaturel et de la croyance, tels certains textes présentés comme d'origine divine. Les humanistes développent une morale universelle fondée sur la communauté de la condition humaine. L'humanisme est composante d'une variété de systèmes philosophiques plus spécifiques et de plusieurs écoles de pensée religieuse. Bien avant d'être un concept galvaudé par la politique, l'humanisme est avant tout un terme de l'histoire de la philosophie renvoyant à la Renaissance, et plus particulièrement au mouvement d'Erasme, Michel de Montaigne ou encore Budé, lesquels ont remis à l'honneur à la fois la littérature de l'Antiquité gréco-latine et la réflexion personnelle.» (DBpedia, 2017)
imperialist
commonwealth supporter
colonialist
imperialism
Impérialisme
"Imperialism means "to extend a country's power through military and diplomacy". Its name originated from the Latin word imperium, which means to rule over large territories. Imperialism is "a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means". It has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and ideas. The term imperialism has been applied to Western (and Japanese) political and economic dominance especially in Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. Imperialism is defined as "A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force." Imperialism is particularly focused on the control that one group, often a state power, has on another group of people. This is often through various forms of "othering" (see other) based on racial, religious, or cultural stereotypes. There are "formal" or "informal" imperialisms. "Formal imperialism" is defined as "physical control or full-fledged colonial rule". "Informal imperialism" is less direct; however, it is still a powerful form of dominance. The definition of imperialism has not been finalized for centuries and was confusedly seen to represent the policies of major powers, or simply, general-purpose aggressiveness. Further on, some writers used the term imperialism, in slightly more discriminating fashion, to mean all kinds of domination or control by a group of people over another. To clear out this confusion about the definition of imperialism one could speak of "formal" and "informal" imperialism, the first meaning physical control or "full-fledged colonial rule" while the second implied less direct rule though still containing perceivable kinds of dominance. Informal rule is generally less costly than taking over territories formally. This is because, with informal rule, the control is spread more subtly through technological superiority, enforcing land officials into large debts that cannot be repaid, ownership of private industries thus expanding the controlled area, or having countries agree to uneven trade agreements forcefully. It is mostly accepted that modern-day colonialism is an expression of imperialism and cannot exist without the latter. The extent to which "informal" imperialism with no formal colonies is properly described remains a controversial topic among historians. Both colonization and imperialism have been described by Tom Nairn and Paul James as early forms of globalization: Even if a particular empire does not have a "global reach" as we would define it today, empires by their nature still tend to contribute to processes of globalization because of the way that imperial power tends to generate counter-power at its edge-lands and send out reverberations far beyond the territories of their immediate control. The word imperialism became common in Great Britain during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation. In Great Britain, the word had until then mostly been used to refer to the politics of Napoleon III in obtaining favorable public opinion in France through foreign military interventions." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'impérialisme est une stratégie ou une doctrine politique de conquête, visant la formation d'un empire ou d'une domination. Pour John Atkinson Hobson, la nouveauté dans l'impérialisme de la fin du XIXe siècle et du début du XXe siècle, c'est qu'il n'est plus lié à l'idée d'un empire couvrant le monde connu, comme c'était le cas dans le cadre de la Pax Romana. Au contraire, à la suite de la montée du nationalisme au XIXe siècle, cet impérialisme donne lieu à une lutte entre empires concurrents (Empire allemand, Empire britannique, Empire russe, etc.). Au niveau économique, l'impérialisme est alors de nature protectionniste et s'oppose au libre-échange. Par ailleurs, ses liens avec certaines formes de capitalisme monopolistique sont mis en avant par de nombreux auteurs marxistes. De nos jours, ce terme est employé de façon large pour désigner tout rapport de domination établi par une nation ou pays sur un ou plusieurs autres pays.» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-independence (indian)
indian nationalist
Indian independence
Indian self-government
Indian independence movement
Mouvement pour l'indépendance de l'Inde
"The Indian Independence Movement encompassed activities and ideas aiming to end the East India Company rule (1757–1858) and the British Raj (1858–1947) in the Indian subcontinent. The Movement spanned a total of 190 years (1757-1947). The very first organised militant movements were in Bengal, but they later took movement in the then newly formed Indian National Congress with prominent moderate leaders seeking only their basic right to appear for Indian Civil Service examinations, as well as more rights, economic in nature, for the people of the soil. The early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political self-rule proposed by leaders such as the Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The last stages of the self-rule struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's policy of nonviolence and civil resistance, Muhammad Ali Jinnah's constitutional struggle for the rights of minorities in India, and several other campaigns. Activists Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh preached armed revolution to achieve self-rule. Poets and writers such as Rabindranath Tagore, Subramaniya Bharathi, Allama Iqbal, Josh Malihabadi, Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Kazi Nazrul Islam used literature, poetry, and speech as a tool for political awareness. Feminists such as Sarojini Naidu and Begum Rokeya promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in national politics. Babasaheb Ambedkar championed the cause of the disadvantaged sections of Indian society within the larger self-rule movement. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the campaigns by the Quit India movement led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Army movement led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The Indian self-rule movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution. Although the basic ideology of the movement was anti-colonial, it was supported by a vision of independent capitalist economic development coupled with a secular, democratic, republican, and civil-libertarian political structure. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong socialist orientation, due to the increasing influence of left-wing elements in the Congress as well as the rise and growth of the Communist Party of India. The All-India Muslim League was formed in 1906 as a separate Muslim party which later in 1940 called for separate state of Pakistan. The work of these various movements led ultimately to the Indian Independence Act 1947, which ended the suzerainty in India and the creation of Pakistan. India remained a Dominion of the Crown until 26 January 1950, when the Constitution of India came into force, establishing the Republic of India; Pakistan was a dominion until 1956, when it adopted its first republican constitution. In 1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the People's Republic of Bangladesh." (DBpedia, 2017)
«45xCe modèle est-il pertinent ? Cliquez pour en voir d'autres.Cet article ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources (mai 2015). Si vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de référence ou si vous connaissez des sites web de qualité traitant du thème abordé ici, merci de compléter l'article en donnant les références utiles à sa vérifiabilité et en les liant à la section «Notes et références» (modifier l'article, comment ajouter mes sources ?). Le mouvement pour l'indépendance de l'Inde recouvre un ensemble complexe englobant diverses campagnes nationales et régionales, des troubles et des tentatives inspirés d'une philosophie à la fois non-violente et militante, et a impliqué une gamme étendue d'organismes, de philosophies et de mouvements politiques indiens ayant eu pour but commun de mettre fin à l'autorité coloniale britannique aussi bien que celle d'autres administrations coloniales dans le sous-continent indien.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Indian unification
Indian national unity
"At the time of Indian independence in 1947, India was divided into two sets of territories, one under the control of the British Empire, and the other over which the Crown had suzerainty, but which were under the control of their hereditary rulers. In addition, there were several colonial enclaves controlled by France and Portugal. The political integration of these territories into India was a declared objective of the Indian National Congress, and the Government of India pursued this over the next decade." (DBpedia, 2018)
Indigenous rights movement
droit des peuples autochtones
indigenous rights
Advocacy or activism in support of human rights. Indigenous rights - Wikipedia
Militantisme et lutte en faveur des droits des peuples autochtones. Voir Droit des peuples autochtones — Wikipédia
individualist
individualism
Individualisme
"Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasises the moral worth of the individual. Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance and advocate that interests of the individual should achieve precedence over the state or a social group, while opposing external interference upon one's own interests by society or institutions such as the government. Individualism is often defined in contrast to totalitarianism, collectivism and more corporate social forms. Individualism makes the individual its focus and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation." Classical Liberalism, existentialism, and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis. Individualism thus involves "the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization". It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality" related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk." Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'individualisme est une conception philosophique, politique, sociale et morale qui tend à privilégier les droits, les intérêts et la valeur de l'individu par rapport à ceux du groupe. Il prône l'autonomie individuelle face aux diverses institutions sociales et politiques (la famille, le clan, la corporation, la caste...) qui exercent sur lui de multiples pressions. Il ne faut pas confondre individualisme et égoïsme. Contrairement à la compréhension populaire, ce n'est que péjorativement que l'individualisme peut se rapprocher de l'égoïsme et se définir comme une tendance à ne vivre que pour soi. L'individualisme est apparu vers la fin du Moyen Âge et s'est développé à partir de la Renaissance sous l'effet de multiples facteurs, tels que l'invention de l'imprimerie au XVe siècle, qui a favorisé l'activité individuelle de la lecture.» (DBpedia, 2017)
internationalist
internationalism
Internationalisme institutionnel
"Internationalism is a political principle which advocates a greater political or economic cooperation among nations and peoples, and whose ideological roots can be traced to both socialism and liberalism. Supporters of this principle are referred to as internationalists, and generally believe that the people of the world should unite across national, political, cultural, racial, or class boundaries to advance their common interests, or that the governments of the world should cooperate because their mutual long-term interests are of greater importance than their short-term disputes. Internationalism is, in general, opposed to nationalism, jingoism or chauvinism, and war, and proponents can include supporters of any of the four socialist Internationals and organisations such as the United Nations or the World Federalist Movement." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'internationalisme institutionnel est un concept de la théorie des relations internationales, désignant un supranationalisme qui prône le développement de la coopération institutionnelle entre États-nations.» (DBpedia, 2017)
home ruler (ireland)
irish home ruler
home ruler
Irish Home Rule Movement
mouvement Irish Home Rule
"The Irish Home Rule movement was a movement that agitated for self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was the dominant political movement of Irish nationalism from 1870 to the end of World War I. Isaac Butt founded the Home Government Association in 1870. This was succeeded in 1873 by the Home Rule League, and in 1882 by the Irish Parliamentary Party. These organisations campaigned for home rule in the British House of Commons. Under the leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell, the movement came close to success when the Liberal government under William Ewart Gladstone introduced the First Home Rule Bill in 1886, but the bill was defeated in the House of Commons after a split in the Liberal Party. After Parnell's death, Gladstone introduced the Second Home Rule Bill in 1893; it passed the Commons but was defeated in the House of Lords. After the removal of the Lords' veto in 1911, the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912, leading to the Home Rule Crisis. On the outbreak of World War I it was enacted, but suspended until the conclusion of the war. Following the Easter Rising of 1916, public support shifted from the Home Rule movement to the more radical Sinn Féin party. In the 1918 General Election the Irish Parliamentary Party suffered a crushing defeat, only a handful of MP's surviving. This was effectively the death of the Home Rule movement. The elected Sinn Féin MPs had no interest in home rule, instead setting up their own legislature, Dáil Éireann, and declaring the independence of Ireland as a republic. Britain passed a Fourth Home Rule Bill, the Government of Ireland Act 1920, aimed at creating separate parliaments for Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. The former was established in 1921, and the state continues to this day, but the latter never functioned. Following the Treaty that ended the Anglo-Irish War, the 26 southern counties of Ireland gained independence as the Irish Free State." (DBpedia, 2017)
irish nationalist
irish patriotism
parnellite
cultural nationalist
Irish nationalism
Nationalisme irlandais
"Irish nationalism asserts that the Irish people are a nation. Since the partition of Ireland, the term generally refers to support for a united Ireland. Irish nationalists assert that rule from London has been to the detriment of Irish interests." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nationalisme irlandais est né avec l'occupation précoce de l'île par les Anglais. Le nationalisme culturel irlandais vise à rétablir la culture gaélique des Irlandais en combattant, notamment, l'impérialisme culturel anglais. Il s'oppose historiquement aux privilèges accordés à l'aristocratie protestante, qui imposait le serment du test et interdisait aux catholiques de siéger au parlement.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-unionist
irish independence
Sinn Fein
irish republic
irish republican
irish republicanism
irish resistance
liberty for Ireland
Irish republicanism
Républicanisme irlandais
"Irish republicanism (Irish: poblachtánachas Éireannach) is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. The development of nationalist and democratic sentiment throughout Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was reflected in Ireland in the emergence of republicanism, in opposition to British rule. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion. Discrimination against Catholics and Non-conformists, attempts by the British administration to suppress Irish culture, and the belief that Ireland was economically disadvantaged as a result of the Act of Union were among the specific factors leading to such opposition. The Society of United Irishmen, formed in the 1780s and led primarily by liberal Protestants, evolved into a revolutionary republican organisation, inspired by the American Revolution and allied with Revolutionary France. It launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed. A second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel O'Connell, but broke with O'Connell on the issue of the legitimacy of the use of violence. Primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemen's Land. Some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. Together with the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in Ireland by James Stephens and others in 1858, they made up a movement commonly known as "Fenians" which was dedicated to the overthrow of British imperial rule in Ireland. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, and a dynamite campaign in England in the 1880s. In the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The Easter Rising took place from 24 to 30 April 1916, when members of the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army seized the centre of Dublin, proclaimed a republic and held off British forces for almost a week. The execution of the Rising's leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, led to a surge of support for republicanism in Ireland. In 1917 the Sinn Féin party stated as its aim the "securing the international recognition of Ireland as an independent Irish Republic", and in the general election of 1918 Sinn Féin took 73 of the 105 Irish seats in the British House of Commons. The elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army (IRA), who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic, but a 26-county Irish Free State with Dominion status. This led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. The Free State became an independent constitutional monarchy following the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster 1931 and formally became a republic with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. That same year, the republican movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings and attacks on Royal Ulster Constabulary barracks. The failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials (leftists) and Provisionals (traditionalists) at the beginning of 1970. Both sides were initially involved in an armed campaign against the British state, but the Officials gradually moved into mainstream politics after the Official IRA ceasefire of 1972; the associated "Official Sinn Féin" eventually renamed itself the Workers' Party. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets (especially businesses). While the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) represented the nationalists of Northern Ireland in initiatives such as the 1973 Sunningdale Agreement, republicans took no part in these, believing that a withdrawal of British troops and a commitment to a united Ireland was a necessary precondition of any settlement. This began to change with a landmark speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite and ballot box strategy. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process which led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997 and the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. After elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, republicans sat in government in Northern Ireland for the first time when Martin McGuinness and Bairbre de Brún were elected to the Northern Ireland Executive. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement and the Real IRA. Today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them. The latter are often referred to as "dissident" republicans." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le républicanisme irlandais est une idéologie politique opposée à la présence britannique en Irlande et prônant l'unification de l'île en une République égalitariste. Le fondateur du républicanisme irlandais est le protestant Theobald Wolfe Tone et son mouvement, les United Irishmen. À la fin du XVIIIe siècle, cette idée est portée à la fois par la bourgeoisie libérale protestante d'Irlande et par la paysannerie catholique. Après l'échec de la rébellion irlandaise de 1798, la bourgeoisie protestante devint réactionnaire et se rangea du côté anglais. Révolutionnaires et égalitaristes, inspirés par les révolutions française et américaine, les républicains irlandais se veulent aussi confessionnels, mythifiant l'ancienne union entre catholiques et protestants, sentiment symbolisé par le drapeau irlandais, union du vert des Irlandais et de l'orange des Orangistes. L'action armée tient une place importante dans la tradition républicaine irlandaise, son histoire s'émaillant de soulèvements et de groupes armés clandestins.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-home ruler
anti-home rule
anti-irish nationalist
anti-irish
unionist
Irish unionism
Unionisme en Irlande
"Unionism in Ireland is a political ideology that favours the continuation of some form of political union between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. Since the partition of Ireland, unionism in Ireland has focused on maintaining and preserving the place of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. In this context, a distinction may be made between the unionism in the province of Ulster and unionism elsewhere in Ireland. Today in Northern Ireland, Unionist ideology is expressed in a number of different ways: through preferences for particular newspapers or sports team, participation in unionist culture and by voting for political candidates who espouse unionism. Irish nationalism is opposed to the ideology of unionism. Most unionists come from Protestant backgrounds; most nationalists come from a Roman Catholic background. Exceptions to these generalisations exist; there are Protestant nationalists and there are Catholic unionists." (DBpedia, 2017)
«quot; Pour les articles homonymes, voir unionisme. L'unionisme en Irlande est une idéologie politique prônant le maintien d'une forme d'union politique entre la province d'Irlande du Nord et le Royaume-Uni.» (DBpedia, 2017)
italian nationalist
Italian nationalist movement
mazzinian
italian risorgimento
Italian nationalism
nationalisme Italien
Support for the unification of Italy as a single nation or of Italian nationalism. See Italian nationalism - Wikipedia; Italian unification - Wikipedia
Défense pour l'unification de l'Italie en un même pays ou nationalisme italien. Voir Risorgimento — Wikipédia
jacobin
pro-Jacobin
Jacobinism
Jacobinisme
"A Jacobin was a member of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary political movement that was the most famous political club during the French Revolution (1789–99). The club was so called from the Dominican convent where they originally met, in the Rue Saint-Jacques (Latin: Jacobus) in Paris. Today, Jacobin and Jacobinism are used in a variety of senses. Jacobin is sometimes used in Britain as a pejorative for radical, left-wing revolutionary politics, especially when it exhibits dogmatism and violent repression. In France, Jacobin now generally indicates a supporter of a centralized republican state and strong central government powers and/or supporters of extensive government intervention to transform society." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le jacobinisme est une doctrine politique qui défend la souveraineté populaire et l'indivisibilité de la République française. Il tient son nom du club des Jacobins, dont les membres s'étaient établis pendant la Révolution française dans l'ancien couvent des Jacobins à Paris. Le mot jacobinisme désigne aujourd'hui une doctrine qui tend à organiser le pouvoir de façon administrative (bureaucratie) et centralisée (centralisation) et à le faire exercer par une petite élite de techniciens (technocratie) qui étendent leur compétence à tous les échelons géographiques et à tous les domaines de la vie sociale afin de les rendre uniformes, ce qui en fait l'adversaire du régionalisme. L'usage moderne du mot jacobinisme est de quelque manière anachronique. En effet, le jacobinisme, pendant la révolution française, était une réaction aux enjeux particuliers de l'époque. Pour n'en retenir que la philosophie, on pourrait aussi entendre jacobinisme comme une doctrine opposée aux politiques communautaires, qui tendrait, par exemple, aux divisions internes. Comme mouvement historique, le jacobinisme peut s'apparenter au XVIIIe siècle en Autriche au joséphisme et au XXe siècle en URSS au centralisme bureaucratique.» (DBpedia, 2017)
jacobites
jacobite
jacobite conspirator
Jacobitism
Jacobitisme
"Jacobitism (/ˈdʒækəbaɪˌtɪzm/ JAK-ə-beye-TIZ-əm;Irish: Seacaibíteachas, Séamusachas, Scottish Gaelic: Seumasachas) was a political movement in Great Britain and Ireland that aimed to restore the Roman Catholic Stuart King James VII of Scotland, II of England and Ireland, and his heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland. The movement took its name from Jacobus, the Renaissance Latin form of Iacomus, the original Latin form of James. Adherents rebelled against the British government on several occasions between 1688 and 1746. After James II was deposed in 1688 and replaced by his daughter Mary II, ruling jointly with her husband and first cousin (James's nephew) William III, the Stuarts lived in exile, occasionally attempting to regain the throne. The strongholds of Jacobitism were parts of the Scottish Highlands and the lowland north-east of Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Northern England (mostly within the counties of Northumberland and Lancashire). Significant support also existed in Wales and South-West England. The Jacobites believed that parliamentary interference with the line of succession to the English and Scottish thrones was illegal. Catholics also hoped the Stuarts would end recusancy. In Scotland, the Jacobite cause became intertwined with the last throes of the warrior clan system. The emblem of the Jacobites is the White Cockade. White Rose Day is celebrated on 10 June, the anniversary of the birth of the Old Pretender in 1688." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le «jacobitisme» historique est un mouvement politique proche des Tories entre 1688 et 1807, composé de ceux qui soutenaient la dynastie détrônée des Stuarts et considéraient comme usurpateurs tous les rois et les reines britanniques ayant régné pendant cette période. Soutenu par les monarchies catholiques françaises et espagnoles, il était surtout implanté en Irlande et dans les Highlands d'Écosse qui furent le théâtre de plusieurs révoltes soutenues par la France. Plus marginalement, le jacobitisme disposait également d'un certain nombre de partisans dans le nord de l'Angleterre et au Pays de Galles. En 1688, le roi Jacques II d'Angleterre et d'Irlande et VII d'Écosse (1633-1701) fut détrôné par un coup d'État, appelé par les historiens Glorieuse Révolution, mené par une armée hollandaise de 25 000 hommes, dont plus de 7 000 huguenots français. Le roi est chassé et une bonne partie de ses pouvoirs transmis au parlement, où les lois seront élaborées par le parti whig. Les royalistes britanniques qui lui étaient restés fidèles, de même qu'à ses successeurs, sont connus sous le nom de jacobites car le prénom du roi, en latin, est «Jacobus». Les historiens évaluent à 40 000 le nombre de réfugiés jacobites en France, qui ont émigré après la Glorieuse Révolution, dont environ 60 % étaient irlandais, 34 % anglais et 6 % écossais. Parmi eux, 40 % étaient de familles aristocratiques, dont un grand nombre d'officiers de l'armée du roi. En France, ils ont constitué la Cour jacobite de Saint-Germain en Laye et la puissante communauté des Irlandais de Nantes. Apparu plus tard, le jacobitisme dit «moderne» est un mouvement très marginal composé de ceux qui considèrent qu'étaient illégitimes tous les rois et les reines ayant régné sur les pays de l'Empire britannique et du Commonwealth après 1688, en particulier parce que ces souverains ont abdiqué une grande part de leur pouvoir en faveur du parlement. Les jacobites modernes considèrent que la reine Elisabeth II (née en 1926, reine depuis 1952) n'est que «la princesse Philippe de Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderbourg-Glücksbourg».» (DBpedia, 2017)
Jewish emancipation
Émancipation des Juifs
"Jewish emancipation was the external (and internal) process in various nations in Europe of eliminating Jewish disabilities, e.g. Jewish quotas, to which Jewish people were then subject, and the recognition of Jews as entitled to equality and citizenship rights on a communal, not merely individual, basis. It included efforts within the community to integrate into their societies as citizens. It occurred gradually between the late 18th century and the early 20th century. Jewish emancipation followed the Age of Enlightenment and the concurrent Jewish enlightenment. Various nations repealed or superseded previous discriminatory laws applied specifically against Jews where they resided. Before the emancipation, most Jews were isolated in residential areas from the rest of the society; emancipation was a major goal of European Jews of that time, who worked within their communities to achieve integration in the majority societies and broader education. Many became active politically and culturally within wider European civil society as Jews gained full citizenship. They emigrated to countries offering better social and economic opportunities, such as the Russian Empire and France. Some European Jews turned to Socialism, others to Jewish nationalism: Zionism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'émancipation des Juifs désigne le processus de libération des Juifs en Europe et dans le monde, qui leur a permis d'obtenir la citoyenneté et la pleine égalité de leurs droits avec leurs concitoyens. Si la France a été la première à attribuer la pleine égalité de droits aux Juifs par le vote de l'Assemblée constituante en 1791 au début de la Révolution française, il faut rappeler que le processus d'émancipation a débuté juridiquement avec l'Édit de tolérance de Joseph II d'Autriche (1781) qui accorde la liberté de culte aux Protestants comme aux Juifs, l'Édit de tolérance de Louis XVI (1787) et en Allemagne avec la conjonction de la philosophie des Lumières et de la Haskalah (dont le plus illustre représentant est Moïse Mendelssohn). L'émancipation se traduit par une série d'actes législatifs par laquelle les états ont reconnu la citoyenneté aux Juifs. En France, la Terreur a empêché un temps chrétiens et juifs de pratiquer leur religion, mais l'égalité de droits a été confirmée sous Napoléon Ier. Dans le reste de l'Europe, l'émancipation qui s'est faite au XIXe siècle, a conduit à la disparition au moins formelle des ghettos et à l'égalité des chances pour les Juifs, en Europe occidentale et en Amérique. Là où elle s'est heurtée à une plus grande opposition, dans l'Empire russe particulièrement, les Juifs se sont plus volontiers tournés vers les mouvements révolutionnaires ou le sionisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
anti-sweated labour
factory reformer
Independent Labour Party
industrial reformer
International Labour Party
labour activism
labour advocate
labour feminist
labour organizer
Labour Party activist
Labour party
labour
women's labour activist
labour movement
Mouvement ouvrier
"The Labour movement or Labor movement (see spelling differences), or, respectively, labourism or laborism, are general terms for the collective organisation of working people developed to represent and campaign for better working conditions and treatment from their employers and, by the implementation of labour and employment laws, their governments. The standard unit of organisation is the trade union. In some countries, especially the United Kingdom and Australia, the labour movement is understood to include a formal political wing, usually as a political party known as a "labour party" or "workers' party". Many individuals and political groups otherwise considered to represent ruling classes may be part of and active in the labour movement. Contemporary labourism developed in response to the depredations of industrial capitalism at about the same time as socialism. However, while the goal of labourism was to protect and strengthen the interests of labour within capitalism, the goal of socialism was to replace the capitalist system entirely." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le terme de mouvement ouvrier désigne l'ensemble des mouvements et partis organisés, à partir de l'époque de la révolution industrielle, pour améliorer les conditions d'existence de la classe ouvrière. Cette définition inclut principalement le syndicalisme, mais aussi les partis politiques en étant issus ou s'en étant réclamés et plus largement les différentes formes d'action politique et sociale ayant représenté, ou estimé représenter, les intérêts de la classe ouvrière (coopératisme, mutualisme). Plus particulièrement, au XIXe siècle, la mouvance socialiste — qui adopte dans une partie des pays européens l'appellation de social-démocrate — se pose en représentant du mouvement ouvrier. La nature des liens entre syndicalisme et partis politiques est cependant variable selon les pays : au Royaume-Uni, la précocité du développement industriel a entraîné l'antériorité des syndicats sur le Parti travailliste. Après la scission de la mouvance socialiste au début du XXe siècle, les partis communistes et, prise au sens large, la mouvance communiste dans son ensemble, se sont présentés comme les représentants authentiques du mouvement ouvrier. Les anarchistes ont également pu revendiquer la représentation des intérêts du monde ouvrier, notamment via des phénomènes comme l'anarcho-syndicalisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Irish land nationalization
land reform
"Land reform (also agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning) involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution, generally of agricultural land. Land reform can, therefore, refer to transfer of ownership from the more powerful to the less powerful, such as from a relatively small number of wealthy (or noble) owners with extensive land holdings (e.g., plantations, large ranches, or agribusiness plots) to individual ownership by those who work the land. Such transfers of ownership may be with or without compensation; compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land." (DBpedia, 2017)
leftist
anti-conservative
left-wing
Gauche (politique)
"Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. It typically involves a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others (prioritarianism), as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished (by advocating for social justice). The term left wing can also refer to "the radical, reforming, or socialist section of a political party or system". The political terms Left and Right were coined during the French Revolution (1789–1799), referring to the seating arrangement in the Estates General: those who sat on the left generally opposed the monarchy and supported the revolution, including the creation of a republic and secularization, while those on the right were supportive of the traditional institutions of the Old Regime. Use of the term "Left" became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the "Independents". The word "wing" was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, and "left-wing" was applied to those who were unorthodox in their religious or political views. The term was later applied to a number of movements, especially republicanism during the French Revolution in the 18th century, followed by socialism, communism, anarchism, and social democracy in the 19th and 20th centuries. Since then, the term left-wing has been applied to a broad range of movements including civil rights movements, feminist movements, anti-war movements, and environmental movements, as well as a wide range of parties. According to author Barry Clark, "Leftists [...] claim that human development flourishes when individuals engage in cooperative, mutually respectful relations that can thrive only when excessive differences in status, power, and wealth are eliminated." " (DBpedia, 2017)
«En politique, l'usage consiste à diviser les partis politiques en catégories générales qui formalisent une division bipartisane : la droite et la gauche, auxquelles on peut ajouter le centre. Dans l'ensemble du champ politique, les forces politiques sont triples : droite, gauche et forces révolutionnaires (extrême-gauche) hors partis. La notion de gauche et celle de droite en politique est une construction progressive entre la fin du XVIIIe siècle et le début du XXe siècle. La gauche désigne la partie gauche de l'hémicycle d'une assemblée parlementaire et les personnes et partis qui y siègent habituellement. De ce fait, la notion de gauche (comme celle de droite) ne possède pas un contenu idéologique fixe et a priori : par exemple, l'orléanisme est à gauche du légitimisme, le bourgeois libéral est à gauche du bourgeois monarchiste, et ce qui était à gauche à une époque se retrouve souvent à droite à une autre époque, ainsi le bourgeois libéral est aujourd'hui généralement à droite, alors qu'il est de gauche du temps de Benjamin Constant. De nos jours, les partis de gauche se rassemblent généralement dans la promotion d'idéaux progressistes et d'égalité, la critique de l'ordre social et le souci d'une plus grande justice sociale. Elle comprend la social-démocratie, le radicalisme, le socialisme, le communisme et certains courants de l'anarchisme.Le terme n'est pas utilisé que pour les partis, on utilise parfois le terme de gauche syndicale ou plus rarement de gauche associative.» (DBpedia, 2017)
liberal unionist
Liberal Unionist Party
Parti libéral unioniste
"The Liberal Unionist Party was a British political party that was formed in 1886 by a faction that broke away from the Liberal Party. Led by Lord Hartington (later the Duke of Devonshire) and Joseph Chamberlain, the party formed a political alliance with the Conservative Party in opposition to Irish Home Rule. The two parties formed the ten-year-long, coalition Unionist Government 1895–1905 but kept separate political funds and their own party organisations until a complete merger was agreed in May 1912." (DBpedia, 2017)
Le Liberal Unionist Party est un parti politique britannique qui se sépara du Parti libéral en 1886. Dirigé par Spencer Cavendish (Lord Hartington, et plus tard duc du Devonshire) et Joseph Chamberlain, le parti a formé une alliance politique avec le Parti conservateur dans l'opposition à l'Home Rule de l'Irlande. Les deux partis ont formé un gouvernement de coalition en 1895, mais gardèrent un fonctionnement séparés jusqu'à une fusion complète en mai 1912. * Portail de la politique britannique" Portail de la politique britannique" (DBpedia, 2017)
liberal
British Liberalism
radical liberal
Liberal Party
ultra liberals
liberalism
Libéralisme
"Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Whereas classical liberalism emphasises the role of liberty, social liberalism stresses the importance of equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas and programmes such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic societies, secular governments, gender equality, and international cooperation. Liberalism first became a distinct political movement during the Age of Enlightenment, when it became popular among philosophers and economists in the Western world. Liberalism rejected the prevailing social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, and the Divine Right of Kings. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct philosophical tradition. Locke argued that each man has a natural right to life, liberty, and property, while adding that governments must not violate these rights based on the social contract. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy and the rule of law. Prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution. The 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. In this period, the dominant ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liberalism later survived major ideological challenges from new opponents, such as fascism and communism. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state. Today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le libéralisme est une doctrine de philosophie politique qui affirme la liberté comme principe politique suprême ainsi que son corollaire de responsabilité individuelle, et revendique la limitation du pouvoir du souverain. Le mot libéralisme fait son apparition au début du XIXe siècle. Les racines du libéralisme sont plus anciennes. L'opposition à l'absolutisme du souverain s'est développée dans l'Europe des Lumières (XVIIIe siècle), mais aussi auparavant par la scolastique de l'École de Salamanque (XVIe siècle) faisant obligation morale au souverain de respecter les droits fondamentaux de chaque être humain au motif de sa nature de créature de Dieu, ou plus anciennement par les chartes médiévales (telles la Magna Carta) introduisant des droits fondamentaux dont le respect est exigé du souverain, ou encore par certains pans de la philosophie thomiste, eux-mêmes précédés par le principe de justice naturelle d'Aristote. La date des débuts formels du libéralisme ou de ses composantes politiques, économiques ou religieuses diffère selon les auteurs. De nombreux auteurs font commencer le libéralisme avec la Lettre sur la tolérance de John Locke (1689) qui complète les racines préexistantes. Le libéralisme repose sur l'idée que chaque être humain possède des droits fondamentaux naturels précédant toute association et qu'aucun pouvoir n'a le droit de violer. En conséquence, les libéraux veulent limiter les obligations sociales imposées par le pouvoir et plus généralement le système social, telles que la morale, au profit du libre choix et de l'intérêt de chaque individu indépendamment des autres. La question de l'articulation entre «libéralisme économique» et «libéralisme politique» reçoit des réponses variées. Le libéralisme prône la liberté d'expression des individus. Dans le domaine économique, il défend notamment l'initiative privée, la libre concurrence et son corollaire l'économie de marché ; dans le domaine politique, il accepte des pouvoirs politiques encadrés par une loi librement débattue, défend un État de droit et des contre-pouvoirs. Au libéralisme classique, fondé davantage sur la liberté en tant que droit négatif, s'oppose entre autres le libéralisme social fondé sur la liberté en tant que droit positif (protection exigée du souverain contre la misère matérielle ou la pression morale communautaire, quitte à accorder au souverain un droit de coercition sociale à cette fin). Ainsi le libéralisme peut se manifester de façons fort diverses, voire opposées. Le «libéral» peut être suivant le cas celui qui exige de l'État qu'il brise une tradition qui contraint la liberté de l'individu (caste, statuts, discriminations et privilèges…), celui qui défend la liberté de pratiquer ou non une religion ou une tradition, celui qui demande que l'État intervienne pour redonner une véritable capacité d'action économique (bridée par un monopole, la pauvreté, le manque d'éducation, de crédit ou autre), ou encore celui qui s'oppose à l'intervention du pouvoir (dans le respect de l'initiative privée, de la libre concurrence, de l'égalité de traitement…). Les limites à fixer à l'action de l'État, ainsi que les modalités de l'action publique, notamment aux rôles respectifs de l'action administrative et de la loi, sont donc sujets à débat au sein même du libéralisme. La plupart des libéraux considèrent que l'action de l'État est nécessaire à la protection des libertés individuelles, dans le cadre de ses fonctions régaliennes, et nombre d'entre eux (comme Adam Smith, Raymond Aron, Karl Popper ou Benedetto Croce) acceptent et même recommandent certaines interventions de l'État dans l'économie, notamment en matière de contrôle et de régulation. À l'opposé, les libertariens de tendance anarcho-capitaliste refusent à l'État toute légitimité dans quelque domaine que ce soit.» (DBpedia, 2017)
libertarian
religious libertarian
Libertarianism
Libertarianisme
"Libertarianism (Latin: liber, "free") is a collection of political philosophies that uphold liberty. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and freedom of choice, emphasising political freedom, voluntary association, and the primacy of individual judgment. Libertarians generally share a skepticism of authority; however, they diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing political and economic systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power, often calling to restrict or to dissolve coercive social institutions. Some libertarians advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights, such as in land, infrastructure, and natural resources. Others, notably libertarian socialists, seek to abolish capitalism and private ownership of the means of production in favor of their common or cooperative ownership and management. An additional line of division is between minarchists and anarchists. While minarchists think that a minimal centralized government is necessary, anarchists propose to completely eliminate the state." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le libertarianisme, aussi appelé libertarisme (à ne pas confondre avec libertarisme de gauche et Libertaire) est une philosophie politique qui conçoit la société juste comme une société dont les institutions respectent et protègent la liberté de chaque individu d'exercer son plein droit de propriété sur lui-même et les droits de propriété qu'il a légitimement acquis sur des objets extérieurs. Issue du libéralisme elle prône donc, au sein d'un système de propriété et de marché universel, la liberté individuelle en tant que droit naturel. La liberté est conçue par le libertarianisme comme une valeur fondamentale des rapports sociaux, des échanges économiques et du système politique. Les libertariens se fondent sur le principe de non-agression qui affirme que nul ne peut prendre l'initiative de la force physique contre un individu, sa personne, sa liberté ou sa propriété. De fait, ses partisans, les libertariens, sont favorables à une réduction voire à la disparition de l'État (antiétatisme) en tant que système fondé sur la coercition, au profit d'une coopération libre et volontaire entre les individus, avec un État limité à des fonctions régaliennes. Robert Nozick (1938-2002), Murray Rothbard (1926-1995) et Charles Murray (1943-) font partie des principaux auteurs nourrissant cette doctrine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
chinese communism
Maoism
Maoïsme
"Mao Zedong Thought (simplified Chinese: 毛泽东思想; traditional Chinese: 毛澤東思想; pinyin: Máo Zédōng Sīxiǎng), or Maoism, is a political theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader Mao Zedong (1893–1976). Its followers, known as Maoists, consider it an anti-Revisionist form of Marxism–Leninism. Developed from the 1950s until the Deng Xiaoping reforms in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China (CPC), and as theory guiding revolutionary movements around the world. The essential difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism is that Mao claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China, because, contrary to their industrial working "comrades," they were more suited to establishing a successful revolution and socialist society in China." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le maoïsme (en chinois : 毛泽东思想, pinyin : Máo Zédōng sīxiǎng, «pensée Mao-Zedong») est un courant du communisme développé au XXe siècle par Mao Zedong, chef du Parti communiste chinois, qui arrive au pouvoir en Chine en 1949, au terme d'une longue guerre civile contre le Guomindang. Comme Lénine dit avoir adapté les théories de Karl Marx à la Russie, Mao déclare adapter les théories de Marx et de Lénine à la situation politique et économique de la Chine du XXe siècle. Au sortir de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Mao affirme vouloir émanciper la population chinoise à la fois de l'impérialisme occidental et du confucianisme. Au moment de la rupture sino-soviétique, Mao se réclame d'une lecture «anti-révisionniste» du marxisme-léninisme et refuse de suivre un processus parallèle à la déstalinisation, poussant la Chine encore plus loin sur la voie du quadrillage total de la société par le Parti et du culte de sa personnalité. Le maoïsme, même si la tendance pro-soviétique reste largement majoritaire au sein du communisme mondial, commence alors à la concurrencer, et de multiples groupes à travers le monde se réclament de Mao et de sa vision tiers-mondiste et «anti-impérialiste». L'Albanie d'Enver Hoxha devient même un pays satellite de la Chine. Après la mort de Mao en 1976, le maoïsme est, en République populaire de Chine, progressivement vidé de sa substance idéologique même si le PCC continue de se réclamer officiellement de la «pensée Mao-Zedong». En revanche, des groupes maoïstes, d'importance très inégale, continuent d'exister à travers le monde, notamment des groupes armés de l'Inde, du Népal et d'Amérique latine. En Occident, le maoïsme intellectuel a fait long feu, ses adeptes (dont le philosophe Jean-Paul Sartre) ayant dans leur immense majorité changé d'opinions après la mort de Mao ; il est considéré par les historiens d'aujourd'hui comme une idéologie totalitaire comparable au stalinisme.» (DBpedia, 2017)
marriage law reformer
marriage reformer
married women's property supporter
custody rights
pro-divorce
divorce reform activist
divorce reformer
maternal wage activist
married women's control of their own property
marriage law reform
réforme du mariage
Advocacy or activism related to the reform of laws related to marriage and divorce, including education, marital rape, wages for housework and childrearing, property law, child custody, and civil rights.
Militantisme ou activisme lié aux réformes des lois concernant le mariage et le divorce, comprenant l'éducation, le viol conjugal, la répartition des tâches domestiques et de l'éducation des enfants, la propriété, la garde des enfants et les droits civiques.
marxist
Marxism
Marxisme
"Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that analyzes class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and a dialectical view of social transformation. It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist methodology originally used a method of economic and sociopolitical inquiry known as historical materialism to analyze and critique the development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change. According to Marxist perspective, class conflict within capitalism arises due to intensifying contradictions between the highly productive mechanized and socialized production performed by the proletariat, and the private ownership and appropriation of the surplus product (profit) by a small minority of the population who are private owners called the bourgeoisie. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, social unrest between the two antagonistic classes will intensify, until it culminates in social revolution. The eventual long-term outcome of this revolution would be the establishment of socialism – a socioeconomic system based on social ownership of the means of production, distribution based on one's contribution, and production organized directly for use. As the productive forces and technology continued to advance, Marx hypothesized that socialism would eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs". Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Different Marxian schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while de-emphasising or rejecting other aspects, and sometimes combine Marxist analysis with non-Marxian concepts; as a result, they might reach contradictory conclusions from each other. Lately, however, there is movement towards the recognition that the main aspect of Marxism is philosophy of dialectical materialism and historicism, which should result to more agreement between different schools. Marxist analyses and methodologies have influenced multiple political ideologies and social movements, and Marxist understandings of history and society have been adopted by some academics in the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le marxisme est un courant de pensée politique, sociologique et économique fondé sur les idées de Karl Marx (et dans une moindre mesure de Friedrich Engels) et de ses continuateurs. Politiquement, le marxisme repose sur la participation au mouvement réel de la lutte des classes, afin d'arriver à une société sans classes en tant qu'alternative au capitalisme. En effet, Karl Marx considère que «l'émancipation des travailleurs doit être l'œuvre des travailleurs eux-mêmes».» (DBpedia, 2017)
royalist
monarchist
constitutional monarchist
royalist politician
active royalists
loyalty to the Crown
monarchism
Monarchisme
"Monarchism is the advocacy of a monarch or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government, independent of any specific monarch; one who espouses a particular monarch is a royalist. Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is sometimes referred to as republicanism. Depending on the country, a monarchist may advocate for the rule of the person who sits on the throne, a pretender, or someone who would otherwise occupy the throne but has been deposed." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le monarchisme est une doctrine politique qui prône la monarchie, c'est-à-dire une forme de gouvernement dans laquelle une seule personne fonde l'autorité de l'État. Le mode de désignation du monarque n'est pas nécessairement héréditaire : il peut dans de rares cas être élu, comme les empereurs du Saint-Empire romain germanique, les doges de la République de Venise ou (encore actuellement) les Papes de l'Église catholique romaine. Cependant, les mots monarque et monarchisme sont presque toujours utilisés à la place de ceux de roi et royalisme, en particulier dans les textes de ceux qui critiquaient la royauté sous l'Ancien Régime. On parle aussi, avec le présidentialisme, de monarchie républicaine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
multiculturalist
multiculturalism
Multiculturalisme
"Multiculturalism describes the existence, acceptance, and/or promotion of multiple cultural traditions within a single jurisdiction, usually considered in terms of the culture associated with an aboriginal ethnic group and foreigner ethnic groups. This can happen when a jurisdiction is created or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures (e.g. French Canada and English Canada) or through immigration from different jurisdictions around the world (e.g. Australia, Canada, United States, United Kingdom, and many other countries). Multicultural ideologies and policies vary widely, ranging from the advocacy of equal respect to the various cultures in a society, to a policy of promoting the maintenance of cultural diversity, to policies in which people of various ethnic and religious groups are addressed by the authorities as defined by the group to which they belong. Multiculturalism that promotes maintaining the distinctiveness of multiple cultures is often contrasted to other settlement policies such as social integration, cultural assimilation, and racial segregation. Multiculturalism has been described as a "salad bowl" and "cultural mosaic". Two different and seemingly inconsistent strategies have developed through different government policies and strategies. The first focuses on interaction and communication between different cultures; this approach is also often known as interculturalism. The second centers on diversity and cultural uniqueness which can sometimes result in intercultural competition over jobs among other things and may lead to ethnic conflict. Cultural isolation can protect the uniqueness of the local culture of a nation or area and also contribute to global cultural diversity. A common aspect of many policies following the second approach is that they avoid presenting any specific ethnic, religious, or cultural community values as central." (DBpedia, 2017)
Le multiculturalisme est un terme sujet à diverses interprétations. Il peut simplement désigner la coexistence de différentes cultures (ethniques, religieuses, etc.) au sein d'un même ensemble (pays, par exemple). Il peut aussi désigner différentes politiques volontaristes : * anti-discriminatoires, visant à assurer un statut social égal aux membres des diverses cultures ; * communautaires, permettant l'existence de statuts (légaux, administratifs…) spécifiques aux membres de telle ou telle communauté culturelle ; * identitaires, visant à favoriser l'expression des particularités des diverses cultures ; * et aujourd'hui le multiculturalisme se" centre sur le thème religieux (pluralisme). Multiculturalisme s'oppose à interculturalisme. Dans une société interculturelle les immigrés ou leurs descendants participent à l'ensemble des activités de la société d'accueil. Une intégration culturelle réussie nécessite l'abandon d'une partie de la culture d'origine qui ne serait pas compatible avec les valeurs de la société d'accueil." (DBpedia, 2017)
multi-racialist
multiracialism
multiracialisme
"Multiracialism is a concept or ideology that promotes a society composed of various races, while accepting and respecting different cultural backgrounds. It is a society that consists of a diverse mix of people, whether it be relative to their ethnicity, language, culture, religion, or traditions." (DBpedia, 2017)
nationalism
Nationalisme
"Nationalism is a shared group feeling in the significance of a geographical and sometimes demographic region seeking independence for its culture or ethnicity that holds that group together. This can be expressed as a belief or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with or becoming attached to one's nation. Nationalism involves national identity, by contrast with the related concept of patriotism, which involves the social conditioning and personal behaviours that support a state's decisions and actions. From a political or sociological perspective, there are two main perspectives on the origins and basis of nationalism. One is the primordialist perspective that describes nationalism as a reflection of the ancient and perceived evolutionary tendency of humans to organize into distinct groupings based on an affinity of birth. The other is the modernist perspective that describes nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society in order to exist. An alternative perspective to both of these lineages comes out of engaged theory, and argues that while the form of nationalism is modern, the content and subjective reach of nationalism depends upon "primordial" sentiments. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however, which leads to several different strands of nationalism. It can be a belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic, cultural, religious, or identity group, or that multinationality in a single state should necessarily comprise the right to express and exercise national identity even by minorities.The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development has commonly been the result of a response by influential groups unsatisfied with traditional identities due to inconsistency between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members, resulting in a situation of anomie that nationalists seek to resolve. This anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. This development may be the result of internal structural issues or the result of resentment by an existing group or groups towards other communities, especially foreign powers that are or are deemed to be controlling them. National flags, national anthems and other symbols of national identity are commonly considered highly important symbols of the national community." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nationalisme est un principe politique, né à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, tendant à légitimer l'existence d'un État-nation pour chaque peuple (initialement par opposition à la royauté, régime politique qui en France sera ensuite nommé Ancien Régime). Ce principe politique s'est progressivement imposé en Europe au cours du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle. Les historiens ne présentent pas ce nationalisme, en général, comme une idéologie, car il est peu et mal argumenté ou justifié par des intellectuels. Depuis son avènement il est en revanche facilement présenté comme une évidence dans la vie politique et sociale. Ce terme désigne aussi des mouvements politiques déclarant vouloir exalter une nation sous toutes ses formes (État, culture, religion, traditions, préférence nationale pour l'emploi...), par opposition aux autres nations et populations. Cette deuxième variante du mouvement s'est développée à partir de la fin du XIXe siècle, vers 1870 : chauvine et xénophobe, elle trouvait alors ses militants principalement dans la petite bourgeoisie. Le nationalisme apparaît aussi, à partir du milieu du XIXe siècle, comme un sentiment national plus ou moins répandu et exalté au sein de la population d'un pays, et s'invitant (surtout au XXe siècle) au sein de multiples doctrines ou idéologies politiques, allant du communisme (par exemple le concept de Patriotisme anti-impérialiste de Mao Zedong) et du fascisme (concept de Totalitarisme anticapitaliste de Benito Mussolini) jusqu'aux démocraties parlementaires, en passant par la Troisième Internationale léniniste. Ainsi il a souvent servi de justification aux épurations ethniques du XXe siècle, peut-être parce que le sentiment national est devenu «puissamment mobilisateur», comme l'avaient compris dès le printemps des peuples de 1848 certains conseillers de dynasties européennes. On distingue en général trois formes principales de nationalisme, le nationalisme ethnique, ou ethnonationalisme, qui est la forme de nationalisme dans lequel la «nation» est défini en termes d'appartenance ethnique («biologique»), le nationalisme civique, le plus souvent inspiré par des notions issues du droit du sol et le nationalisme culturel, position intermédiaire entres les deux autres formes et dans lequel la nation est définie par une culture commune.» (DBpedia, 2017)
nazi
pro-nazi
Nazism
Nazisme
"National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), more commonly known as Nazism (/ˈnɑːtsɪzəm, ˈnæ-/), is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi state, as well as other far-right groups. Usually characterized as a form of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism, Nazism developed out of the influences of Pan-Germanism, the Völkisch German nationalist movement and the anti-communist Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged during the Weimar Republic after German defeat in World War I. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of "racial purity" (Volksgemeinschaft). The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum, while excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or belonging to an "inferior" race. The term "National Socialism" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of "socialism", as an alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class struggle, opposed cosmopolitan internationalism, and sought to convince all parts of a new German society to subordinate their personal interests to the "common good" and to accept the priority of political interests in economic organisation. The Nazi Party was founded as the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP) to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf, written in 1924, Hitler outlined the antisemitism and anti-communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for parliamentary democracy and his belief in Germany's right to territorial expansion. In 1933, with the support of traditional conservative nationalists, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and the Nazis gradually established a one-party state, under which Jews, political opponents and other "undesirable" elements were marginalized, with several millions eventually imprisoned and killed. Hitler purged the party's more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives and, after the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in his hands, as Führer or "leader". Following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le national-socialisme (en allemand : Nationalsozialismus), plus couramment désigné en français sous l'abréviation nazisme, est l'idéologie politique du Parti national-socialiste des travailleurs allemands (NSDAP), parti politique d'extrême droite fondé en Allemagne en 1920 et dirigé par Adolf Hitler. Cette idéologie théorise une hiérarchie au sein d'une espèce humaine divisée en «races», au sommet de laquelle elle place la «race aryenne». Le nazisme est le seul type de fascisme incorporant à la fois racisme biologique et antisémitisme. Par extension, le terme nazisme désigne le régime politique inspiré de cette idéologie, dictature totalitaire et expansionniste dirigée par Adolf Hitler de 1933 à 1945 et connue sous les noms de Troisième Reich et d'Allemagne nazie. En tant que sujet de science politique, les définitions du nazisme varient selon les historiens. En particulier, reste ouverte la question de savoir si le nazisme ne fut que l'une des formes du fascisme ou, parce qu'ayant fait du racisme une doctrine d'État, le nazisme doit être considéré comme un phénomène historique unique. En effet, l'antisémitisme officiel du régime nazi, dès 1933, l'élimination des personnes handicapées et la persécution des opposants politiques, des Juifs, des homosexuels, des Roms, etc., se concrétisèrent par la mise en place, dès 1933, des premiers camps de concentration en Allemagne. Cette politique ne fit que s'amplifier du début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, qui vit la création des camps d'extermination nazis, jusqu'à la défaite militaire du nazisme en 1945. Ainsi près de six millions de personnes, dont une majorité de Juifs, périrent dans les camps de concentration et d'extermination nazi ou par la Shoah par balles (voir Shoah). Le régime nazi, censé «durer mille ans», en dura douze et laissa l'Allemagne en ruine.» (DBpedia, 2017)
neo-Conservative
neo-conservatism
Néo-conservatisme
"Neoconservatism (commonly shortened to neocon) is a political movement born in the United States during the 1960s among conservative leaning Democrats who became disenchanted with the party's foreign policy. Many of its adherents became politically famous during the Republican presidential administrations of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. Neoconservatives peaked in influence during the administration of George W. Bush, when they played a major role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Prominent neoconservatives in the George W. Bush administration included Paul Wolfowitz, John Bolton, Elliott Abrams, Richard Perle, and Paul Bremer. Senior officials Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, while not identifying as neoconservatives, listened closely to neoconservative advisers regarding foreign policy, especially the defense of Israel and the promotion of democracy in the Middle East. The term "neoconservative" refers to those who made the ideological journey from the anti-Stalinist Left to the camp of American conservatism. Neoconservatives typically advocate the promotion of democracy and promotion of American national interest in international affairs, including by means of military force, and are known for espousing disdain for communism and for political radicalism. The movement had its intellectual roots in the Jewish monthly review magazine Commentary, published by the American Jewish Committee. They spoke out against the New Left and in that way helped define the movement. C. Bradley Thompson, a professor at Clemson University, claims that most influential neoconservatives refer explicitly to the theoretical ideas in the philosophy of Leo Strauss (1899–1973),though in doing so they may draw upon meaning that Strauss himself did not endorse." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le néo-conservatisme ou néoconservatisme est un courant de pensée politique d'origine américaine apparu à la fin du XXe siècle. Il s'agit d'une conception qui a émergé aux États-Unis par opposition au relativisme culturel et à la contre-culture de la Nouvelle gauche («New Left») des années 1960. Cette philosophie a influencé les politiques menées par George W. Bush, signifiant un réalignement de la politique américaine, et le passage de quelques libéraux sociaux à la droite du spectre politique, d'où le terme qui fait référence aux «nouveaux» conservateurs. À l'origine, le terme néo-conservateur était utilisé pour critiquer les sociaux-libéraux qui sont passés du côté du Parti républicain. Michael Harrington, un social-démocrate, a forgé l'usage du mot néo-conservateur en 1973 dans Dissent, un magazine sur les politiques de protection sociale. Selon E. J. Dionne, le néo-conservatisme est né sur le principe que le social-libéralisme a échoué. Le premier théoricien néo-conservateur à avoir adopté ce mot et qui est considéré comme le fondateur de cette idéologie est Irving Kristol et père de William Kristol, fondateur du think-tank «néo-conservateur» Project for the New American Century. Irving Kristol a été un militant trotskyste actif pendant sa jeunesse et a exposé ses vues néoconservatrices en 1979 dans l'article Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed 'Neoconservative'. Les idées de Kristol sont influentes depuis les années 1950 quand il a cofondé et édité le magazine Encounter. Un autre idéologue de ce mouvement était Norman Podhoretz, éditeur au magazine Commentary de 1960 à 1995. En 1982, Podhoretz se désignait déjà comme un néo-conservateur dans un article du New York Times Magazine intitulé The Neoconservative Anguish over Reagan's Foreign Policy. La doctrine Reagan était considérée comme anticommuniste et en opposition avec l'influence mondiale de l'URSS. Elle était au centre de la politique étrangère américaine jusqu'à la fin de la Guerre froide, un peu avant que Clinton ne devienne président. L'influence néo-conservatrice sur la politique étrangère américaine sera un peu plus tard au premier plan de la doctrine Bush. Les journaux néo-conservateurs prééminents sont Commentary et The Weekly Standard. Il existe aussi des cercles de réflexion néo-conservateurs sur la politique étrangère dont notamment American Enterprise Institute (AEI), le The Heritage Foundation, JINSA (Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs) et enfin Project for the New American Century (PNAC).» (DBpedia, 2017)
new dealer
défenseur du New Deal
Supporter of New Deal policies. See New Deal - Wikipedia
Défenseurs de la politique du New Deal. Voir New Deal — Wikipédia
nihilist
nihilism
Nihilisme
"Nihilism is a philosophical doctrine that suggests the lack of belief in one or more reputedly meaningful aspects of life. Most commonly, nihilism is presented in the form of existential nihilism, which argues that life is without objective meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value. Moral nihilists assert that morality does not inherently exist, and that any established moral values are abstractly contrived. Nihilism can also take epistemological, ontological, or metaphysical forms, meaning respectively that, in some aspect, knowledge is not possible, or that reality does not actually exist. The term is sometimes used in association with anomie to explain the general mood of despair at a perceived pointlessness of existence that one may develop upon realising there are no necessary norms, rules, or laws. Movements such as Futurism and deconstruction, among others, have been identified by commentators as "nihilistic". Nihilism is also a characteristic that has been ascribed to time periods: for example, Jean Baudrillard and others have called postmodernity a nihilistic epoch, and some Christian theologians and figures of religious authority have asserted that postmodernity and many aspects of modernity represent a rejection of theism, and that such rejection of their theistic doctrine entails nihilism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nihilisme (du latin nihil, «rien») est une doctrine ou attitude, fondée sur la négation de toutes valeurs, croyances ou réalités substantielles. Souvent associé au pessimisme ou au scepticisme radical, le nihilisme nie ou émet des doutes, quant aux causalités, intentionnalités et normativités de l'existence. Cette notion est applicable à différents domaines : politique, littéraire, religieux et philosophique. Un mouvement révolutionnaire nihiliste et anarchiste apparut en Russie dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle. Il rejetait l'autorité de l'État, de l'Église orthodoxe et de la famille et revendiquait une organisation de la société basée sur le rationalisme et le matérialisme. Il aboutit vers 1870 au terrorisme radical.» (DBpedia, 2017)
nonjurors
Non-jurors
nonjurors movement
mouvement du clergé réfractaire
"The nonjuring schism was a split in the Anglican churches of England, Scotland and Ireland in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, over whether William III and Mary II could legally be recognised as sovereigns. The word "nonjuring" means "not swearing [an oath]", from the Latin word iuro or juro meaning "to swear an oath". Many of the Anglican clergy felt legally bound by their previous oaths of allegiance to James II and, though they could accept William as regent, they could not accept him as king. It was not necessarily a split on matters of religious doctrine, but more of a political issue and a matter of conscience, though most of the nonjurors were high church Anglicans. Thus, latitudinarian Anglicans were handed control of the Church of England, while Presbyterians took control of the Church of Scotland. The nonjurors thus were nominally Jacobite, although they generally did not actively support the Jacobite rebellions in 1715 or 1745." (DBpedia, 2017)
socialist pacifist
peace movement
peace campaigner
pacifist supporter
pacifism
Pacifisme
"Pacifism is opposition to war, militarism, or violence. The word pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud (1864–1921) and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ahimsa (to do no harm), which is a core philosophy in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, ancient references abound. In Christianity, Jesus Christ's injunction to "love your enemies" and asking for forgiveness for his crucifiers "for they know not what they do" have been interpreted as calling for pacifism. In modern times, interest was revived by Leo Tolstoy in his late works, particularly in The Kingdom of God Is Within You. Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) propounded the practice of steadfast nonviolent opposition which he called "satyagraha", instrumental in its role in the Indian Independence Movement. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to Martin Luther King Jr., James Lawson, James Bevel, Thich Nhat Hanh and many others in the Civil Rights Movement. Pacifism was widely associated with the much publicized image of Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 with the "Tank Man", where one protester stood in nonviolent opposition to a column of tanks." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le pacifisme possède deux acceptions possibles incluant l'action des partisans de la paix, ou une doctrine de la non-violence. Bien que reliés, les deux concepts se distinguent du point de vue de la théorie et de la pratique. Le pacifisme est la doctrine et l'action des partisans de la paix ou du rétablissement de la paix. Les socialistes d'avant 1914 (Jean Jaurès), les Zimmerwaldiens durant la Première Guerre mondiale, les opposants aux guerres coloniales ou les partisans de la paix professent un pacifisme qui n'est pas toujours assimilable à la non-violence. La vision du pacifisme associé à une personne refusant le recours à toutes formes de violence est par contre beaucoup plus répandue. La doctrine de la non-violence voit de nombreux courants philosophiques bannir le recours à toute forme de violence en vertu d'un pacifisme radical. Vision portée par de nombreux mouvements et courants de pensée à vocation générale (courants de pensée humaniste, plusieurs tendances inspirées de l'hindouisme, courants chrétiens, etc.).» (DBpedia, 2017)
parliamentarian
pro-parliamentarian
parliamentarianism
parlementarisme
Advocacy for parliamentary systems in government. See: Parliamentary system - Wikipedia
Plaidoyer pour les systèmes gouvernementaux parlementaires. Voir Régime parlementaire — Wikipédia
parliamentary reformer
pro-reform
parliamentary reform
réforme parlementaire
Support for reform of the parliamentary system of the United Kingdom. See Reform Bills - Wikipedia; Category:Representation of the People Acts - Wikipedia; Electoral reform - Wikipedia
Défense de la réforme parlementaire au Royaume-Uni. Voir Representation of the People Act 1918 — Wikipédia et Reform Act 1832 — Wikipédia
patriotic
patriotism
Patriotisme
"Patriotism is an emotional attachment to a nation which an individual recognizes as their homeland. This attachment, also known as national feeling or national pride, can be viewed in terms of different features relating to one's own nation, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to those of nationalism. An excess of patriotism in the defense of a nation is called chauvinism; another related term is jingoism. The English term patriot is first attested in the Elizabethan era, via Middle French from Late Latin (6th century) patriota, meaning "countryman", ultimately from Greek πατριώτης (patriōtēs), meaning "from the same country", from πατρίς (patris), meaning "fatherland". The abstract noun patriotism appears in the early 18th century." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le patriotisme désigne le dévouement d'un individu envers son pays qu'il reconnait comme étant sa patrie.» (DBpedia, 2017)
polish nationalist
Polish nationalism
nationalisme polonais
"Polish nationalism is the nationalism that asserts that Poles are a Polish nation, and promotes the cultural unity of Poles. Norman Davies, in the context of Polish nationalism, defined nationalism in general as "a doctrine ... to create a nation by arousing people's awareness of their nationality, and to mobilize their feelings into a vehicle for political action". The old Polish protonationalism of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth based on the Polish-Lithuanian identity was multi-ethnic and multi-religious. The nationalist ideology developed soon after the Partitions was initially free of "ethnic nationalism" of any kind. It was a Romantic movement for the restoration of the Polish sovereign state. Polish Romantic nationalism was described by Maurycy Mochnacki as "the essence of the nation" no longer defined by borders but by ideas, feelings, and thoughts resulting from the past. The birth of modern nationalism under foreign rule coincided with the November Uprising of 1830 and the subsequent Spring of Nations. However, the defeat suffered by the Poles also broke the Polish revolutionary spirit. Many intellectuals turned to social Darwinism of Herbert Spencer, blaming the Romantic philosophy for the loss of their property, mass destruction, and ultimately the loss of the nation. With the advent of Positivism between 1860 and 1890 Polish nationalism became an elitist cause. Because the partitioning powers could not have identified themselves with the Polish nation, therefore the ideology became more restrictive in terms of ethnicity and religion." (DBpedia, 2017)
poor advocacy
défense des pauvres
Advocacy for the poor.
Militantisme en faveur des pauvres.
Poor Law reform
poor law reform
réforme de la Poor Law
"From the reign of Elizabeth I until the passage of the Poor Law Amendment Act in 1834 relief of the poor in England was administered on the basis of a Poor Law enacted in 1601. From the start of the nineteenth century the basic concept of providing poor relief was criticised as misguided by leading political economists and in southern agricultural counties the burden of poor-rates was felt to be excessive (especially where poor-rates were used to supplement low wages (the "allowance" or Speenhamland system)). Opposition to the Elizabethan Poor Law led to a Royal Commission on poor relief, which recommended that poor relief could not in the short term be abolished; however it should be curtailed, and administered on such terms that none but the desperate would claim it. Relief should only be administered in workhouses, whose inhabitants were to be confined, "classified" (men, women, boys, girls) and segregated. The Poor Law Amendment Act allowed these changes to be implemented by a Poor Law Commission largely unaccountable to Parliament. The Act was passed by large majorities in Parliament, but the regime it was intended to bring about was denounced by its critics as (variously) un-Christian, un-English, unconstitutional, and impracticable for the great manufacturing districts of Northern England. The Act itself did not introduce the regime, but introduced a framework by which it might easily be brought in. Opposition to the New Poor Law strictly speaking was resistance to the introduction of the New Poor Law administrative framework; this was chiefly encountered in the industrial North in 1837–9 and overcome after a few riots by a judicious mixture of legal threats and deployment of the military. Opposition to the New Poor Law in the looser sense of resistance to (and criticism of) key features of the regime recommended by the Royal Commission persisted and eventually became orthodoxy: for example outdoor relief was never abolished in much of the industrial North. When a prominent West Riding opponent of the New Poor Law died in 1858, the Huddersfield Chronicle wrote " ...the controversy closed and English common sense has settled down on the poor-law question somewhat nearer to the views of Oastler and Pitkethly than those of their opponents."" (DBpedia, 2017)
prison reform
réforme pénitentiaire
"Prison reform is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons, establish a more effective penal system, or implement alternatives to incarceration." (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-American
pro-américain
A pro-American or "Americanophile" stance favours the policies, actions, or culture of the United States of America.
Le proaméricanisme ou posture "américanophile" défend la politique, les actions ou la culture des États-Unis d'Amérique.
pro-Boer
pro-Boer War
pro-guerre des Boers
Support of the First or Second Boer War. See First Boer War - Wikipedia; Second Boer War - Wikipedia
Défenseurs de la première ou de la seconde guerre des Boers. Voir Première guerre des Boers — Wikipédia et Seconde guerre des Boers — Wikipédia
catholic
roman catholic
non-compounder
pro-Catholic
pro-Catholicism
procatholicisme
Favouring the political re-establishment of Catholicism as a component of the state or the extension of civil rights to Catholics. See Category:Catholicism-related controversies - Wikipedia
Lutte en faveur de la réintégration du catholicisme au sein de l'État ou de l'extension des droits civiques des catholiques. Voir Catégorie:Controverse en religion — Wikipédia
pro-choice
Mouvement pro-choix
"Abortion-rights movements advocate for legal access to induced abortion services. The issue of induced abortion remains divisive in public life, with recurring arguments to liberalize or to restrict access to legal abortion services. Abortion-rights supporters themselves are frequently divided as to the types of abortion services that should be available and to the circumstances, for example different periods in the pregnancy such as late term abortions, in which access may be restricted." (DBpedia, 2017)
«quot; Pour l'article homonyme, voir ProChoix. Le mouvement pro-choix (en anglais pro-choice, c'est-à-dire «pour le choix») désigne en Amérique du Nord l'ensemble des mouvements qui défendent l'idée politique et éthique que les femmes devraient avoir le contrôle de leur grossesse et de leur fertilité. S'y ajoutent notamment la liberté sexuelle, le droit au recours à l'avortement légal et encadré, et le libre choix de la contraception. On l'oppose dans ce contexte aux mouvements pro-vie, pour lesquels la liberté des femmes ne peut pas être utilisée comme argument pour contester le droit à la vie de l'embryon. Par extension, on utilise pro-choix pour évoquer tous les mouvements de défense des libertés individuelles, telles que la liberté de culte et l'euthanasie. Ce terme provient d'une justification des actes en fonction de leurs modalités d'exécution (choisi/imposé).» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-European
europhile
Europeanist
Supportive of the existence, policies, or influence of the European Union. See Pro-Europeanism - Wikipedia
Défense de l'existence, des lois et de l'influence de l'Union Européenne. Voir Europhilie — Wikipédia
pro-slavery
pro-esclavagisme
"Proslavery is an ideology that perceives slavery as a positive good." (DBpedia, 2017)
property reform
illegitimacy reformer
land reformer
property law reform
réforme des droits à la propriété
Support for reform of the laws regarding real or personal property. See Property law - Wikipedia
Défense des réformes législatives sur les biens fonciers et immobiliers. Voir Droit des biens en France — Wikipédia
protestantism
Protestant rule
gouvernement protestant
Support for protestant rule in the United Kingdom. See English Reformation - Wikipedia
Défenseur du gouvernement protestant au Royaume-Uni. Voir Réforme anglaise — Wikipédia
racial equality activist
activist for racial equality
race equality
racial integration
racial integrationist
racial equality
équité raciale
"Racial equality is an equal regard to all races. It can refer to a belief in biological equality of all human races, and it can also refer to social equality for people of different races. Racial equality is a stated goal of most current political movements. The divergence of any particular society from a state of racial equality is often contested by members of that society of different races. In today's society, there is more diversity and more integration among races. However, attaining equality has been difficult for African Americans, Asians, and Latinos, especially in schools." (DBpedia, 2017)
racist
racism
Racisme
"Racism is a product of the complex interaction in a given society of a race-based worldview with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems (e.g., apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often includes the idea that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena. While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to one traditionally attributed to "race": the division of human groups based on qualities assumed to be essential or innate to the group (e.g. shared ancestry or shared behavior). Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to a United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms "racial" and "ethnic" discrimination. The UN convention further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Today, the use of the term "racism" does not easily fall under a single definition. It is usually found in, but usage is not limited to, law, the social and behavioral sciences, humanities, and popular culture." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le racisme est une idéologie qui, partant du postulat de l'existence de races au sein de l'espèce humaine, considère que certaines catégories de personnes sont intrinsèquement supérieures à d'autres. Cette idéologie peut entraîner une attitude d'hostilité ou de sympathie systématique à l'égard d'une catégorie déterminée de personnes. Cette hostilité envers une autre appartenance culturelle et ethnique se traduit par des formes de xénophobie ou d'ethnocentrisme. Certaines formes d'expression du racisme, comme les injures racistes, la diffamation raciale, la discrimination, sont considérées comme des délits dans un certain nombre de pays. Les idéologies racistes ont servi de fondement à des doctrines politiques conduisant à pratiquer des discriminations raciales, des ségrégations ethniques et à commettre des injustices et des violences, allant jusqu'au génocide. Le Petit Larousse définit aussi le racisme comme «une attitude d'hostilité répétée voire systématique à l'égard d'une catégorie déterminée de personnes».» (DBpedia, 2017)
radical
political radical
radical dissident
working class radical
radicalism
radicalisme
"The term political radicalism (or simply, in political science, radicalism) denotes political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary means and changing value systems in fundamental ways. Derived from the Latin radix (root), the denotation of radical has changed since its eighteenth-century coinage to comprehend the entire political spectrum—yet retains the "change at the root" connotation fundamental to revolutionary societal change. Historically, radicalism has referred exclusively to the radical left (under the single category of far-left politics) and rarely incorporating far-right politics, though these may have revolutionary elements; the prominent exception is in the United States where some consider radicalism to include both political extremes of the radical left and the radical right. In traditional labels of the spectrum of political thought, the opposite of radical on the "right" of the political spectrum is termed reactionary. The nineteenth-century Cyclopaedia of Political Science (1881, 1889) reports that "radicalism is characterized less by its principles than by the manner of their application". Conservatives often used the term radical pejoratively, whereas contemporary left radicals used the term conservative derogatorily; thus contemporary denotations of radical, radicalism, and political radicalism comprehend far left (hard left, radical left), and far right (hard right, radical right). The Encyclopædia Britannica records the first political usage of radical as ascribed to the British Whig Party parliamentarian Charles James Fox, who, in 1797, proposed a "radical reform" of the electoral system, franchise to provide universal manhood suffrage, thereby, idiomatically establishing radical to denote supporters of the reformation of the British Parliament. Throughout the nineteenth century, the term was combined with political notions and doctrines, thus working class radicalism, middle class-, philosophic-, democratic- bourgeois-, Tory-, and plebeian radicalism. In the event, politically influential radical leaders give rise to their own trend of political radicalism, e.g. Spencean radicalism and Carlilean radicalism. Philosophically, the French political scientist Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78), is the principal theoretician proposing political radicalism as feasible in republican political philosophy, viz the French Revolution (1789–99), and other modern revolutions—the antithesis to the liberalism of John Locke." (DBpedia, 2017)
rationalism
Rationalisme
"In epistemology, rationalism is the view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification". More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive". In an old controversy, rationalism was opposed to empiricism, where the rationalists believed that reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of this, the rationalists argued that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. That is to say, rationalists asserted that certain rational principles exist in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience". Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge". Given a pre-modern understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to philosophy, the Socratic life of inquiry, or the zetetic (skeptical) clear interpretation of authority (open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they appear to our sense of certainty). In recent decades, Leo Strauss sought to revive "Classical Political Rationalism" as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning, not as foundational, but as maieutic. In politics, Rationalism, since the Enlightenment, historically emphasised a "politics of reason" centered upon rational choice, utilitarianism, secularism, and irreligion – the latter aspect's antitheism later ameliorated by utilitarian adoption of pluralistic rationalist methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology. In this regard, the philosopher John Cottingham noted how rationalism, a methodology, became socially conflated with atheism, a worldview: In the past, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, the term 'rationalist' was often used to refer to free thinkers of an anti-clerical and anti-religious outlook, and for a time the word acquired a distinctly pejorative force (thus in 1670 Sanderson spoke disparagingly of "a mere rationalist, that is to say in plain English an atheist of the late edition..."). The use of the label "rationalist" to characterize a world outlook which has no place for the supernatural is becoming less popular today; terms like "humanist" or "materialist" seem largely to have taken its place. But the old usage still survives." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le rationalisme est la doctrine qui pose la raison discursive comme seule source possible de toute connaissance réelle. Autrement dit, le réel ne serait connaissable qu'en vertu d'une explication par la raison déterminante, suffisante et nécessaire. Ainsi, le rationalisme s'entend de toute doctrine qui attribue à la seule raison humaine la capacité de connaître et d'établir la vérité. Dans son acception classique, il s'agit de postuler que le raisonnement consiste à déterminer que certains effets résultent de certaines causes, uniquement à partir de principes logiques ; à la manière dont les théorèmes mathématiques résultent des hypothèses admises au départ. De plus, et en particulier, les principes logiques eux-mêmes utilisés dans le raisonnement ont été connus par déduction.» (DBpedia, 2017)
republicanism
Républicanisme
"Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty. Many countries are "republics" in the sense that they are not monarchies. However, this article covers only the ideology of republicanism. The word, "republic", derives from the Latin, res publica, which referred to the system of government that emerged in the 6th century BCE following the expulsion of the kings from Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus and Collatinus. This form of government collapsed in the latter part of the 1st century BCE, giving way to what was a monarchy in form, if not in name. Republics revived subsequently, with, for example, Renaissance Florence or early modern Britain. The concept of a republic became a powerful force in Britain's North American colonies where it led to the American Revolution. In Europe it gained enormous influence through the French Revolution." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le républicanisme est une idéologie politique selon laquelle l'objectif d'un État et le sens de son existence, comme de ses décisions, doivent être le bien commun (en latin, res publica : «la chose publique»). Selon le républicanisme, les détenteurs du pouvoir doivent être nommés par d'autres moyens que l'hérédité, c'est-à-dire être élus par le peuple ou par une partie de celui-ci. La notion de souveraineté populaire découle donc en partie de cette idéologie, mais elle ne lui est pas nécessairement attachée. La notion de «république» remonte à l'Antiquité grecque et romaine, et l'idéologie républicaine moderne a pris des formes légèrement différentes selon qu'elle a été développée aux États-Unis, en France ou en Irlande. À l'époque moderne, le républicanisme s'oppose à d'autres idéologies politiques telles que le monarchisme, l'autoritarisme ou le despotisme. Dans les débats contemporains, c'est principalement au libéralisme politique qu'il s'oppose.» (DBpedia, 2017)
pro-revolutionary
révolutionnaire
"A revolutionary is a person who either actively participates in, or advocates revolution. Also, when used as an adjective, the term revolutionary refers to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor." (DBpedia, 2017)
Sabbatarianism
Sabbatarianisme
"Sabbatarianism is a movement within Protestantism whose proponents advocate that certain observances, specifically enumerated in a code of behavior or law, are required for Christians to properly observe the Sabbath or Sabbath principles. Its historical origins lie in Puritan Sabbatarianism, which delineated precepts for keeping Sunday holy in observance of Sabbath commandment principles. This observance of Sunday is the purest form of first-day Sabbatarianism, a movement which diminished and largely disappeared in the 18th century, though traces and influences remain today. Today, seventh-day Sabbatarianism is the most prominent type, a movement that generally embraces a literal reading of the Sabbath commandment that provides for both worship and rest on the seventh day of the week. Seventh-day Baptists leave most other Sabbath considerations of observance to individual conscience. The Seventh-day Adventist Church and Church of God (Seventh Day) have similar views, but maintain the original, scriptural duration as Friday sunset through Saturday sunset. Non-Sabbatarianism is the view opposing all Sabbatarianism, declaring Christians to be free of mandates to follow such specific observances. It upholds the principle in Christian church doctrine that the church is not bound by such law or code, but is free to set in place and time such observances as uphold Sabbath principles according to its doctrine: to establish a day of rest, or not, and to establish a day of worship, or not, whether on Saturday or on Sunday or on some other day. It includes all Catholics and Orthodox, and most Protestant denominations." (DBpedia, 2017)
sanitary movement
mouvement pour l'assainissement
Promotion of sanitary practices and conditions, often directed at the poor or the reform of urban sanitation, through charitable or political activities. See Sanitation - Wikipedia
Sensibilisation sur les conditions et pratiques sanitaires, généralement pour les plus pauvres, ou réforme de l'hygiène publiques à travers à travers des oeuvres de charité ou d'action politique. Voir Assainissement — Wikipédia.
scottish nationalist
scots nationalist
Scottish nationalism
Nationalisme écossais
"Scottish nationalism promotes the idea that the Scottish people form a cohesive nation and national identity and is closely linked to the cause of Scottish home rule and Scottish independence: the ideology of the Scottish National Party (the party forming the Scottish Government). It is often described as a form of civic nationalism rather than ethnic nationalism. The Acts of Union merged the independent kingdoms of Scotland and England into Great Britain in 1707, but a separate legal system and distinct Scottish institutions continued to exist. Linguistic independence was an important part of the twentieth century Scottish Renaissance, associated with the nationalist impetus provided by Hugh MacDiarmid." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le nationalisme écossais moderne naît dans l'entre-deux-guerres, même si des éléments nationalistes sont depuis plusieurs siècles au cœur de l'identité écossaise. L'article examine le contexte historique et politique qui a vu l'éclosion d'un nationalisme politique en Écosse, depuis la création du SNP (Scottish National Party) en 1934 jusqu'à la mise en place d'un régime de dévolution à l'Écosse à partir de 1999.» (DBpedia, 2017)
secularist
secularism
Laïcité
"Secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. One manifestation of secularism is asserting the right to be free from religious rule and teachings, or, in a state declared to be neutral on matters of belief, from the imposition by government of religion or religious practices upon its people. Another manifestation of secularism is the view that public activities and decisions, especially political ones, should be uninfluenced by religious beliefs and/or practices. Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman philosophers such as Epicurus and Marcus Aurelius; from Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch Spinoza, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine; and from more recent freethinkers and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell. The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely. In European laicism, it has been argued that secularism is a movement towards modernization, and away from traditional religious values (also known as secularization). This type of secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has often occurred while maintaining an official state church or other state support of religion. In the United States, some argue that has served to a greater extent to protect religion and the religious from governmental interference, while secularism on a social level is less prevalent. Within countries as well, differing political movements support secularism for varying reasons." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La laïcité ou le sécularisme est le «principe de séparation dans l'État de la société civile et de la société religieuse» et «d'impartialité ou de neutralité de l'État à l'égard des confessions religieuses». Le mot désigne par extension le caractère des «institutions, publiques ou privées, qui sont indépendantes du clergé et des églises». La laïcité s'oppose à la reconnaissance d'une religion d'État. Toutefois, le principe de séparation entre l'État et les religions peut trouver des applications différentes selon les pays.» (DBpedia, 2017)
sexual liberationist
sex-trade reformer
sex-trade activist
sexual libertarian
sexual reformer
sexual reform
révolution sexuelle
Advocacy or activism related to the reform of attitudes, practices, and laws related to sex, including autonomy, age of consent, trafficking, and sex work.
Militantisme ou lutte pour le changement des attitutdes, des praitques et des lois liées à l'activité sexuelle, incluant l'autonomie, la maturité sexuelle, les trafics et les travailleurs du sexe.
purity movement
social purity
abolition de la prostitution (Royaume-Uni)
"The social purity movement was a late 19th-century social movement that sought to abolish prostitution and other sexual activities that were considered immoral according to Christian morality. Composed primarily of women, the movement was active in English-speaking nations from the late 1860s to about 1910, exerting an important influence on the contemporaneous feminist, eugenics, and birth control movements. The movement helped to shape feminist views on prostitution. The roots of the social purity movement lay in early 19th-century moral reform movements, such as radical utopianism, abolitionism, and the temperance movement. In the late 19th century, "social" was a euphemism for "sexual"; the movement first formed in opposition to the legalization and regulation of prostitution, and quickly spread to other sex-related issues such as raising the age of consent, sexually segregating prisons, eliminating abortion, opposing contraception, and censoring pornography." (DBpedia, 2017)
reform
reformers
reformist
social welfare
social and legal reform
progressivism
social reform
réforme sociale
"A reform movement is the kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements. Reformists' ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist (specifically, social democratic) or religious concepts. Some rely on personal transformation; others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhi's spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put things back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement(s) enjoyed, or to prevent any such successes." (DBpedia, 2017)
fabian socialist
Fabian
Independent Socialist
militant socialist
owenite socialism
radical socialist
Social Democrat
Social Democratic Foundation
Social Democratic Party
Social Democrats
socialist and feminist
socialist feminist
socialist organizer
socialist
socialism
socialisme
"Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production; as well as the political ideologies, theories, and movements that aim at their establishment. Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership; to citizen ownership of equity; or to any combination of these. Although there are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them, social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms. Non-market socialism involves the substitution of factor markets and money with engineering and technical criteria based on calculation performed in-kind, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws from those of capitalism. Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets, and, in some cases, the profit motive with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend. The feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. The socialist political movement includes a diverse array of political philosophies that originated amid the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 1700s and of a general concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. In addition to the debate over markets and planning, the varieties of socialism differ in their form of social ownership, how management is to be organized within productive institutions, and the role of the state in constructing socialism. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, and state socialism versus libertarian socialism. Socialist politics has been both centralist and decentralized; internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organized through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent of, and critical of, unions; and present in both industrialized and developing countries. While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term "democratic socialism" is often used to highlight its advocates' high value for democratic processes in the economy and democratic political systems, usually to draw contrast to tendencies they may perceive to be undemocratic in their approach. The term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the late 19th century, and after further articulation and advancement by Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels as the culmination of technological development outstripping the economic dynamics of capitalism, "socialism" had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement. Socialism proceeded to emerge as the most influential secular political-economic worldview of the twentieth century, and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally socialist state led to socialism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, many economists and intellectuals have argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism, or a non-planned administrative or command economy. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism, and liberalism." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mot socialisme recouvre un ensemble très divers de courants de pensée et de mouvements politiques, dont le point commun est de rechercher une organisation sociale et économique plus juste. Le but originel du socialisme est d'obtenir l'égalité sociale, ou du moins une réduction des inégalités, et notamment pour les courants d'inspiration marxiste, d'établir une société sans classes sociales. Plus largement, le socialisme peut être défini comme une tendance politique, historiquement marquée à gauche, dont le principe de base est l'aspiration à un monde meilleur, fondé sur une organisation sociale harmonieuse et sur la lutte contre les injustices. Selon les contextes, le mot socialisme ou l'adjectif socialiste peuvent qualifier une idéologie, un parti politique, un régime politique ou une organisation sociale. Le mot socialisme lui-même entre dans le langage courant à partir des années 1820, dans le contexte de la révolution industrielle et de l'urbanisation qui l'accompagne : il désigne alors un ensemble de revendications et d'idées visant à améliorer le sort des ouvriers, et plus largement de la population, via le remplacement du capitalisme par une société supposée plus juste. L'idée socialiste, sous de multiples formes, se développe au long du XIXe siècle et donne naissance dans le monde entier à des partis politiques s'en réclamant sous diverses dénominations (socialiste, mais également social-démocrate, travailliste, etc.). Dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, le marxisme supplante l'approche dite du «socialisme utopique», ainsi que le «socialisme libertaire» des anarchistes : le courant de pensée marxiste se veut porteur d'une forme «scientifique» de socialisme, fondé sur une analyse du capitalisme, du dépassement de celui-ci par le biais de la lutte des classes et du passage à la propriété sociale des moyens de production. Dans les dernières années du siècle, une partie du socialisme européen s'oriente cependant dans les faits vers le réformisme. À la fin de la Première Guerre mondiale, la famille politique socialiste connaît un schisme avec la naissance du courant communiste, qui continue de se réclamer du socialisme dont il affirme revenir à la tradition révolutionnaire. Les partis socialistes connaissent dans le monde entier des scissions au cours des années 1920 ; ils se trouvent dès lors en compétition avec des partis communistes qui se réclament du «socialisme réel» (ou «socialisme réellement existant») appliqué par l'Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques (URSS), ce dernier pays étant proclamé «patrie du socialisme». La plupart des partis socialistes européens accélèrent, notamment après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, leur évolution vers un réformisme éloigné du marxisme, tandis que les régimes communistes alignés sur l'URSS, et qui se disent eux-mêmes socialistes, se multiplient dans le monde. Le socialisme démocratique, c'est-à-dire un socialisme converti à la démocratie libérale et respectueux du jeu parlementaire, représente aujourd'hui la tendance majoritaire des partis socialistes, qui n'envisagent plus la rupture avec l'économie de marché. La notion de socialisme démocratique est par ailleurs désormais associée à celle de social-démocratie qui tend, notamment en Europe, à en devenir un synonyme. Outre les diversités liées à ses variations idéologiques, le socialisme connaît également de nombreux avatars liés aux contextes géographiques et culturels, comme le socialisme arabe ou le socialisme africain. La mouvance socialiste, prise au sens large, demeure aujourd'hui l'une des plus importantes de la vie politique mondiale, bien que le mot socialisme continue de recouvrir un ensemble de réalités, de pratiques politiques, et de formes de pensée extrêmement diverses et parfois contradictoires entre elles, allant des partis travaillistes aux diverses variétés de «gauchisme», en passant par les partis et régimes communistes actuels. La majorité des principaux partis se réclamant du socialisme se réunit, au niveau international, au sein de l'Internationale socialiste et, au niveau européen, au sein du Parti socialiste européen. Ces organisations n'ont cependant pas le monopole de l'usage de l'appellation socialiste.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Société religieuse des Amis
"Quakers (or Friends) are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of the various Quaker movements are all generally united in a belief in the ability of each human being to experientially access "that of God in every person," and therefore they profess the priesthood of all believers, a doctrine derived from the First Epistle of Peter. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity. To differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were approximately 359,000 adult Quakers. In 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Around 79% of Quakers worldwide belong to the "evangelical" and "programmed" branches of Quakerism—these Quakers worship in services with singing and a prepared message from the Bible, coordinated by a pastor. Around 11% of Friends practice waiting worship, or unprogrammed worship (more commonly known today as Meeting for Worship), where the order of service is not planned in advance, is predominantly silent, and may include unprepared vocal ministry from those present. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry. The first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, breaking away from the established Church of England. The Quakers, especially the ones known as the Valiant Sixty, attempted to convert others to their understanding of Christianity, travelling both throughout Great Britain and overseas, preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ. Some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They based their message on the religious belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself", stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a direct religious belief in the universal priesthood of all believers. They emphasised a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God. In the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. Described as "natural capitalists" by the BBC, some Quakers founded banks and financial institutions, including Barclays, Lloyds, and Friends Provident; manufacturing companies, including shoe retailer C. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Fry's; and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, and social justice projects." (DBpedia, 2017)
spanish republican
spanish republican supporter
Spanish republicanism
républicanisme Espagnol
"There has existed in the Kingdom of Spain a persistent trend of republican thought, especially throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, that has manifested itself in diverse political parties and movements over the entire course of the history of Spain. While these movements have shared the objective of establishing a republic in Spain, during these three centuries there have surged distinct schools of thought on the form republicans would want to give to the Spanish State: unitary (centralized) or federal. Despite the country's long-lasting schools of republican movements, the government of Spain has been organized as a republic during only two very short periods in its history, which totaled less than 10 years of republican government in the entirety of Spanish history. The First Spanish Republic lasted from February 1873 to December 1874, and the Second Spanish Republic lasted from April 1931 to April 1939. Currently there are movements and political parties throughout the entire political spectrum that advocate for a Third Spanish Republic, including almost all of the Spanish left, as well as liberal, right-winged, and nationalist parties." (DBpedia, 2017)
stalinist
totalitarian
Stalinism
Stalinisme
"Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented by Joseph Stalin. Stalinist policies in the Soviet Union included state terror, rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in one country, a centralized state, collectivization of agriculture, cult of personality in leadership, and subordination of interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union—deemed by Stalinism to be the most forefront vanguard party of communist revolution at the time. Stalinism promoted the escalation of class conflict, utilizing state violence to forcibly purge society of claimed supporters of the bourgeoisie, regarding them as threats to the pursuit of the communist revolution that resulted in substantial political violence and persecution of such people. These included not only bourgeois people but also working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies. Stalinist industrialization was officially designed to accelerate the development towards communism, stressing that such rapid industrialization was needed because the country was previously economically backward in comparison with other countries; and that it was needed in order to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism. Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization. Rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities. To accelerate the development of industrialization, Stalin pragmatically created joint venture contracts with major American private enterprises, such as Ford Motor Company, that under state supervision assisted in developing the basis of industry of the Soviet economy from the late 1920s to 1930s. After the American private enterprises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le mot stalinisme désigne l'idéologie et la pratique politique des partis communistes ayant adopté la ligne politique définie par les partisans de Joseph Staline, secrétaire général du Parti communiste de l'Union soviétique. Par extension, ces partis et leurs membres ont été qualifiés de staliniens. Le stalinisme est caractérisé par le centralisme et l'emploi de la force et de la terreur comme mode de gouvernement, accompagnés d'un culte de la personnalité organisé autour du principal dirigeant de chaque Parti communiste. Les régimes staliniens se caractérisent par une économie planifiée par l'état. Par extension, le terme de stalinisme et les adjectifs stalinien ou, plus rarement, staliniste sont parfois utilisés pour qualifier l'ensemble des régimes basés sur le modèle soviétique, ainsi que les partis politiques les soutenant. Après la déstalinisation (1956), l'Union soviétique cesse de se réclamer de Staline, mais le terme stalinisme et l'adjectif stalinien continuent d'être utilisés, dans le cadre de discours critiques ou polémiques, pour qualifier l'URSS, l'ensemble des pays du bloc de l'Est et plus largement l'ensemble des régimes dictatoriaux communistes. En Europe après la déstalinisation, seule la République populaire socialiste d'Albanie s'est réclamée de la continuité stalinienne. En Asie en revanche, ce fut encore, durant des décennies, le cas des régimes communistes chinois, vietnamien, laotien, cambodgien et surtout coréen qui, au XXIe siècle, est parfois qualifiée de «dernier régime stalinien».» (DBpedia, 2017)
christian suffragist
female suffrage
International Suffrage Congress
moderate suffragist
non-militant suffragist
suffrage demonstrator
suffrage leader
suffrage organisations
suffrage organizer
suffrage politics
suffrage processions
suffrage
suffragette
suffragettes
suffragist
supporter of the women's suffrage movement
Woman Suffrage
Women's Enfranchisement
women's franchise
women's suffrage
activist; suffrage campaigner
suffrage movement
Droit de vote
"The right to vote in public, political elections, also called political franchise, or simply franchise. As a political cause, it can refer to the granting or extension of the vote to any sector of the population of a country, such as the extension of the vote to a wider range of men in Britain over the course of the nineteenth century, starting with the Reform Act of 1832. Most references to suffrage as a political cause in the British context, however, refer to the campaign for women's suffrage, the right of women to vote in elections. Advocates of female or women's suffrage were called suffragists or suffragettes." (DBpedia, 2018)
tax withholder
tax resister
tax resistance
Résistance fiscale
"Tax resistance is the refusal to pay tax because of opposition to the government that is imposing the tax or to government policy or as opposition to the concept of taxation in itself. Tax resistance is a form of direct action and if in violation of the tax regulations, a form of civil disobedience. Examples of tax resistance campaigns include those advocating home rule, such as the Salt March led by Mahatma Gandhi, and those promoting women's suffrage, such as the Women's Tax Resistance League. War tax resistance is the refusal to pay some or all taxes that pay for war and a form of nonviolent resistance. War tax resistance may be practiced by conscientious objectors, pacifists, or those protesting against a particular war. As a percentage of income tax funds military expenditure, war tax resisters may avoid or refuse to pay some or all income tax. For example, war resisters may choose to avoid taxes by living simply below the income tax threshold. Tax resisters are distinct from tax protesters who deny that the legal obligation to pay taxes exists or applies. Tax resisters may accept that some law commands them to pay taxes but they still choose to resist taxation." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La résistance fiscale (ou résistance à l'imposition ou désobéissance fiscale) est un acte politique consistant à refuser de participer à la fiscalité de son pays au nom de valeurs morales. C'est une forme de résistance non-violente.» (DBpedia, 2017)
temperance
temperance work
temperance worker
temperance supporter
temperance movement
Ligue de tempérance
"The temperance movement is a social movement against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Temperance movements typically criticize excessive alcohol consumption, promote complete abstinence (teetotalism), or use its political influence to press the government to enact alcohol laws to regulate the availability of alcohol or even its complete prohibition." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Une Ligue de tempérance est une association formée pour s'opposer à la consommation d'alcools. Son fondement est souvent d'ordre religieux ou moral : la plupart des mouvements du XXe siècle en Occident sont également associés au mouvement féministe, l'alcool étant souvent la cause de violences conjugales et absorbant une part substantielle des revenus des familles à bas revenus.» (DBpedia, 2017)
unionism
women's trade unions
union movement
trade unionism
syndicalisme
In support of the formation of a trade union. See Trade union - Wikipedia
Lutte pour la consitution de syndicats professionnels. Voir Syndicat professionnel — Wikipédia et Syndicalisme — Wikipédia
urban reformer
urban reform
renouvellement urbain
Advocacy or activism in support of reforming the urban environment, often in support of alleviating poverty. See Urban renewal - Wikipedia
Militantisme ou lutte en faveur de la réforme de l'environnement urbain, souvent pour réduire les problèmes de pauvreté. Voir Renouvellement urbain — Wikipédia
utilitarianism
Utilitarisme
"Utilitarianism is a theory about what we ought to do. It states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility. "Utility" is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the well-being of sentient entities, such as human beings and other animals. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, gave this definition of "utility": it is the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. The philosopher John Stuart Mill developed this concept further. He included not only the quantity of the pleasure, but also the quality of pleasure. He focused on rules, instead of individual actions. Others have proposed a theory called "negative utilitarianism." They define utility only in terms of suffering. Utilitarianism is a version of what Elizabeth Anscombe called "consequentialism". Consequentialism states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Contrast this view with virtue ethics, which enshrines virtue as a moral good. Some believe that one's intentions are also ethically important. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism, utilitarianism considers all interests equally. Proponents of utilitarianism have disagreed on a number of points. Should individual acts should conform to utility (act utilitarianism)? Or, should agents conform to ethical rules (rule utilitarianism)? Should utility should be calculated as an aggregate (total utilitarianism) or as an average (average utilitarianism)? Though the seeds of the theory can be found in the hedonists Aristippus and Epicurus, who viewed happiness as the only good, the tradition of utilitarianism properly begins with Bentham, and has included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R. M. Hare and Peter Singer. It has been applied the suffering of non-human animals, and the ethics of raising animals for food. Opponents of utilitarianism have raised a number of objections. Some say that utilitarianism ignores justice. Others call it impractical. Specific criticisms have included the mere addition paradox and the utility monster." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'utilitarisme est une doctrine en philosophie politique ou en éthique sociale qui prescrit d'agir (ou de ne pas agir) de manière à maximiser le bien-être collectif, entendu comme la somme ou la moyenne de bien-être (bien-être agrégé) de l'ensemble des êtres sensibles et affectés. Les utilitaristes perçoivent donc le gaspillage de bien-être (production de bien-être total ou moyen inférieur au maximum possible) comme une injustice.» (DBpedia, 2017)
vegetarian
vegetarianism
Végétarisme
"Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism can be adopted for different reasons. Many object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, along with animal rights. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. There are varieties of the diet as well: an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs, and an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs, dairy, and honey. Some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish. Various packaged or processed foods, including cake, cookies, candies, chocolate, yogurt and marshmallows, often contain unfamiliar animal ingredients, and may be a special concern for vegetarians due to the likelihood of such additions. Often, products are reviewed by vegetarians for animal-derived ingredients prior to purchase or consumption. Vegetarians vary in their feelings regarding these ingredients, however. For example, while some vegetarians may be unaware of animal-derived rennet's role in the usual production of cheese and may therefore unknowingly consume the product, other vegetarians may not take issue with its consumption. Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats, on an infrequent basis. Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism. This is because earlier dictionaries included fish as part of the definition whereas the current versions do not. A pescetarian diet has been described as "fish but no other meat". The common use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state that diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian, because fish and birds are also animals." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le végétarisme est une pratique alimentaire qui exclut la consommation de chair animale. Sa définition la plus large correspond à l'ovo-lacto-végétarisme, qui consiste à consommer des végétaux, des champignons et des aliments d'origine animale (comme le miel, les œufs, le lait ainsi que leurs produits dérivés). Il s'agit du végétarisme occidental classique dont les pratiquants étaient appelés «pythagoréens / pythagoriciens» jusqu'en 1847. Le végétarisme indien (hindou et sikh), basé sur l'ahimsâ, autorise la consommation de produits laitiers mais exclut les œufs (les Lois de Manu excluent aussi la consommation des champignons). Le végétarisme est adopté pour des motivations diverses. Certains deviennent végétariens pour des raisons éthiques, religieuses, culturelles ou liées à la santé. D'autres facteurs peuvent motiver l'adoption d'un régime végétarien : la critique des méthodes de traçabilité, d'élevage et d'abattage, l'accès aux denrées alimentaires, l'impact environnemental des modes de production et de prélèvement de ces dernières (les économies d'énergies et d'eau) ou encore le refus par principe de l'exploitation animale. Plusieurs études tendent à montrer qu'une alimentation végétarienne aurait un effet bénéfique sur la santé — diminution des risques de maladies cardiovasculaires et de diabète notamment — et sur l'espérance de vie. Pour autant, cet avantage des régimes sans viande est moins important lorsqu'on les compare avec des régimes omnivores sains. Dans le langage courant, toutes les pratiques alimentaires excluant la chair animale mais incluant la consommation d'autres produits d'origine animale sont appelées «végétarisme» et leurs pratiquants «végétariens». D'autres pratiques alimentaires influencées par le végétarisme existent, comme le pesco-végétarisme (ou «pescétarisme») qui inclut la consommation de poisson, de mollusques et de crustacés aquatiques, ou le flexitarisme, souvent qualifié de «semi-végétarisme», qui inclut une consommation de viande occasionnelle. Le végétalisme quant à lui exclut la totalité des produits d'origine animale.» (DBpedia, 2017)
welsh nationalist
Welsh nationalism
Nationalisme gallois
"Welsh nationalism (Welsh: Cenedlaetholdeb Cymreig) emphasises the distinctiveness of Welsh language, culture, and history, and calls for more self-determination for Wales, which might include more devolved powers for the Welsh Assembly or full independence from the United Kingdom." (DBpedia, 2017)
Le nationalisme gallois consiste dans le projet de défense de l'identité du Pays de Galles, de la culture et de la langue galloise. Ses revendications vont de l'autonomisme, visant à obtenir des pouvoirs accrus pour l'Assemblée nationale du Pays de Galles et le gouvernement gallois, à l'indépendantisme, défendu notamment par le parti Plaid Cymru. * Portail de la politique britannique Portail de la politique britannique * Portail du pays de Galles" Portail du pays de Galles" (DBpedia, 2017)
whig
whigs
pittite whig
williamite
foxite whig
dissident whig
opposition whig
whiggism
whiggisme
"Whiggism, sometimes spelled Whigism, is a historical political philosophy that grew out of the Parliamentarian faction in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1651). The whigs' key policy positions were the supremacy of Parliament (as opposed to that of the king), tolerance of Protestant dissenters, and opposition to a Catholic (especially a Stuart) on the throne. After the huge success of the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, Whiggism dominated English and British politics until about 1760, although in practice it splintered into different factions. After 1760 the Whigs lost power, apart from sharing it in a few short-lived coalitions, but Whiggism fashioned itself into a generalized belief system that emphasised innovation and liberty and was strongly held by about half of the leading families in England and Scotland, as well as most merchants, Dissenters and professionals. The opposing Tory position was held by the other great families, the Church of England, and most of the landed gentry and officers of the army and the navy. Whigs who opposed Robert Walpole often called themselves "Old Whigs" and comprised part of the Country Party. Whiggism referred originally to the Whigs of the British Isles, but in its "Old Whig" form was largely adopted by the American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies. American Whiggism was known as republicanism. One meaning of 'whiggism' given by the Oxford English Dictionary is "moderate or antiquated Liberalism"." (DBpedia, 2017)
Wilkite
A view of the law, in support of John Wilkes. Focused on government accountability and right to trial by jury. See: John Wilkes - Wikipedia
Conception de la loi en accord avec John Wilkes. Comprend surtout la responsabilité gouvernementale et le droit au procès devant jury. Voir John Wilkes — Wikipédia
womanist
womanism
féminisme africain
"Womanism is a social theory deeply rooted in the racial and gender-based oppression of black women. There are varying interpretations on what the term "womanist" means, and efforts to provide a concise and all encompassing definition have only been marginally successful. The ambiguity within the theory allows for its continuous expansion of its basic tenets, though this ambiguity is also widely considered its greatest weakness. At its core, womanism is a social change perspective based upon the everyday problems and experiences of black women and other women of minority demographics, but more broadly seeks methods to eradicate inequalities not just for black women, but for all people." (DBpedia, 2017)
female education
women educators
education for women
female education advocate
activist for women's education
campaigner for women's education
women's medical education
women's education reformer
women's higher education
women's education reform
réforme de l'éducation des filles
Reform of education for women. See Female education - Wikipedia; Category:Women and education - Wikipedia
Réforme de l'éducation des femmes. Voir Histoire des femmes dans l'enseignement public français — Wikipédia et Histoire de l'éducation des filles en France — Wikipédia
women's employment reformer
equal rights in the work place
female employment
employment activist
salary reform
women's employment reform
réforme du travail des femmes
Advocacy or activism related to women's employment including training, opportunities, wages, and working conditions. See Women in the workforce - Wikipedia
Militantisme et lutte liés à l'emploi des femmes, incluant le droits à la formation, aux opportunités, aux salaires et aux conditions de travail décentes. Voir Inégalités de revenu — Wikipédia
zionist
Zionism
Sionisme
"Zionism is a nationalist political movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan or the Holy Land). Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in central and eastern Europe as a national revival movement, in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Until 1948, the primary goals of Zionism were the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel, ingathering of the exiles, and liberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and persecution that they experienced during their diaspora. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and address threats to its continued existence and security. A religious variety of Zionism supports Jews upholding their Jewish identity defined as adherence to religious Judaism, opposes the assimilation of Jews into other societies, and has advocated the return of Jews to Israel as a means for Jews to be a majority nation in their own state. A variety of Zionism, called cultural Zionism, founded and represented most prominently by Ahad Ha'am, fostered a secular vision of a Jewish "spiritual center" in Israel. Unlike Herzl, the founder of political Zionism, Ahad Ha'am strived for Israel to be "a Jewish state and not merely a state of Jews". Advocates of Zionism view it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people residing as minorities in a variety of nations to their ancestral homeland. Critics of Zionism view it as a colonialist, racist, and exceptionalist ideology that led advocates to violence during Mandatory Palestine, followed by the forced exodus of Palestinians, and the subsequent denial of their human rights." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Le sionisme est une idéologie politique fondée sur un sentiment national juif, décrite comme nationaliste par les uns et comme émancipatrice par les autres, prônant l'existence d'un centre territorial ou étatique peuplé par les Juifs en Terre d'Israël (Eretz Israël). À la naissance du mouvement, à la fin du XIXe siècle, ce territoire correspondait à la Palestine ottomane, puis après la Première Guerre mondiale à la partie occidentale de la Palestine mandataire. Sur un plan idéologique et institutionnel, le sionisme entend œuvrer à donner ou redonner aux Juifs un statut perdu depuis l'annexion du Royaume d'Israël par l'Empire assyrien en -720, à savoir celui d'un peuple disposant d'un territoire. Il faut le différencier du post-sionisme, qui veut donner une orientation laïque à l'État d'Israël, normaliser les relations avec les Palestiniens, et du néo-sionisme, qui milite pour la migration des Palestiniens et des Arabes israéliens vers les autres pays arabes. Le mouvement sioniste est né parmi les communautés ashkénazes d'Europe centrale et orientale sous la pression des pogroms, mais aussi en Europe occidentale, à la suite du choc causé par l'affaire Dreyfus – qui compte parmi les motifs du lancement du Congrès sioniste par Theodor Herzl. Bien qu'ayant des caractères spécifiques du fait de la dispersion des Juifs, cette idéologie est contemporaine de l'affirmation d'autres nationalismes en Europe.» (DBpedia, 2017)
has gender identity
est de genre
Describes a person's gender identity, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by gender context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
has gender identity (self-reported)
est de genre (autodéclaré)
Describes a person's self-reported gender identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by gender context annotations.
Cela indique le genre autoproclamé d'une personne.
has gender identity (reported)
est de genre (déclaré)
Indicates a person's reported gender identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by gender context annotations.
gender identity of
gender identity (self-reported) of
gender identity (reported) of
has geographic heritage
A un héritage géographique
Describes a person's heritage in relation to a place, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. Place names and boundaries change over time, and a conception of geographical heritage from one historical period may not be commensurate with those from an earlier or later period, even if they go by the same name. Similarly, a sense of geographical heritage may differ from a sense of identity with a political entity that goes by the same name. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see geographic heritage.
Décrit l'héritage d'une personne en lien avec une situation géographique. Comme les toponomies et les frontières changent au cours du temps, une description de l'héritage géographique associée à une période historique donnée ne correspond pas toujours à celles des périodes antérieures ou postérieures, et ce même si elles possèdent le même nom. De même, le sentiment d'appartenance à un héritage géographique peut différer du sentiement d'appartenance à une entité politique du même nom. De même que pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir héritage géographique.
has geographic heritage (self-reported)
a un héritage géographique (autodéclaré)
Describes a person's self-reported geographic heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations.
has geographic heritage (reported)
a un héritage géographique (déclaré)
Describes a person's reported geographic heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations.
geographic heritage of
geographic heritage (self-reported) of
geographic heritage (reported) of
has national heritage
de héritage national
Describes a person's national heritage, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
has national heritage (self-reported)
de héritage national (autodéclarée)
Describes a person's self-reported national heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
has national heritage (reported)
de héritage national (déclarée)
Describes a person's reported national heritage, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
national heritage of
national heritage (self-reported) of
national heritage (reported) of
has national identity
de nationalité
Describes a person's national identity identity, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
Décrit la identité nationale d'une personne. De même que pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type.
has national identity (self-reported)
de nationalité (autodéclarée)
This property indicates a person's self-reported national identity, with with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. It is neither the same as citizenship nor commensurate with the geographical region or territory in which a person resides. For more information on this property see national identity.
Décrit la/les nationalité(s) autoproclamée(s) d'une personne, différant de la citoyenneté et n'étant pas proportionnelle à la zone géographique ou au territoire sur lequel elle réside.
has national identity (reported)
de nationalité (déclarée)
This property indicates a person's reported national identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by nationality context annotations. It is neither the same as citizenship nor commensurate with the geographical region or territory in which a person resides. For more information on this property see national identity.
Décrit la/les nationalité(s) proclamée(s) d'une personne, différant de la citoyenneté et n'étant pas proportionnelle à la zone géographique ou au territoire sur lequel elle réside.
national identity of
national identity (self-reported) of
national identity (reported) of
has race or colour identity
This describes a person's identity with respect to race or colour, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For more information on this property see race or colour.
Décrit l'identité raciale d'une personne. Pour plus d'information sur cette propriété, voir race ou couleur.
has race or colour identity (self-reported)
Indicates a person's self-reported identity with respect to race or colour, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. For further information about this property, see race or colour.
Décrit l'appartenance raciale ou la couleur autodéclarées d'une personne. Pour plus d'informations à propre de cette propriété, voir race ou couleur.
has race or colour identity (reported)
Indicates a person's reported identity with respect to race or colour, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. For further information about this property, see race or colour.
Décrit l'appartenance raciale ou la couleur déclarées d'une personne. Pour plus d'informations à propre de cette propriété, voir race ou couleur.
race or colour identity of
race or colour identity (self-reported) of
race or colour identity (reported) of
has ethnic identity
d'ethnicité
Indicates a person's ethnic identity, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see ethnicity.
Décrit l'ethnicité d'une personne. De même que pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir ethnicité
has ethnic identity (self-reported)
d'ethnicité (autodéclarée)
Indicates a person's self-reported ethnic identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. For more information on this property, see ethnicity.
Décrit l'ethnicité autodéclarée, accompagnée du contexte fourni par les annotations de contexte ethnique ou racial là ou il est disponible. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir ethnicité.
has ethnic identity (reported)
d'ethnicité (déclarée)
Indicates a person's reported ethnic identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by race or ethnicity context annotations. For more information on this property, see ethnicity.
Décrit l'ethnicité déclarée, accompagnée du contexte fourni par les annotations de contexte ethnique ou racial là ou il est disponible. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir ethnicité.
ethnic identity of
ethnic identity (self-reported) of
ethnic identity (reported) of
has religious affiliation
est de confession
Indicates a person's religion or belief system, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see religion.
Décrit la religion d'une personne. De même que pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir religion.
has religious affiliation (self-reported)
Indicates a person's self-reported religion or belief system, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context annotations. For further information about this property, see religion.
Décrit indique la/les religion(s) ou le(s) système(s) de croyance autoproclamé(s) par une personne. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir religion.
has religious affiliation (reported)
Indicates a person's reported religion or belief system, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context annotations. For further information about this property, see religion.
Décrit indique la/les religion(s) ou le(s) système(s) de croyance proclamé(s) par une personne. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir religion.
religious affiliation of
religious affiliation (self-reported) of
religious affiliation (reported) of
une appartenance politique
has political affiliation
a une appartenance politique
Describes a person's political affiliation, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by politics context annotations. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type, and it may be linked to political affiliations or directly to an organization which may or may not be primarily political. For further information about this property, see political affiliation.
gendered political activity
has gendered political activity
has gendered political activity from
political involvement in
has political involvement in
Indicates some level of political involvement.
has political involvement from
political membership in
has political membership in
Indicates some degree of sustained engagement with an organization such as a political group or literary movement. Does not necessarily denote formal membership, but rather points to clear evidence of a link with an organization without indication of more active participation: a person may have been a member of the sanitary movement or participated in a reading associated with a particular literary movement.
has political membership from
activist involvement in
has activist involvement in
Indicates the highest level of political involvement in a particular cause. It indicates such activities as suffragists chaining themselves to railings or women camping out at Greenham Common, as well as very active leadership roles in a political organization. Thus Josephine Butler, founder of the Ladies' National Association Against the Contagious Diseases Acts, qualifies as activist for having founded the organization, directed its activities, and for speaking publicly at meetings at considerable personal risk.
has activist involvement from
political affiliation (self-reported)
une appartenance politique (autodéclarée)
has political affiliation (self-reported)
a une appartenance politique (autodéclarée)
Describes a person's self-reported political affiliation. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see political affiliation.
political affiliation (reported)
has political affiliation (reported)
Describes a person's reported political affiliation. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see political affiliation.
political affiliation of
political affiliation (self-reported) of
political affiliation (reported) of
has class identity
a une classe sociale
Describes a person's class identity, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see social class.
Décrit la classe sociale d'une personne. Comme pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir classe sociale.
class identity of
has class identity (self-reported)
a classe sociale autodéclarée
Describes a person's self-reported class identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. For further information about this property, see social class.
Décrit la classe social autodéclarée d'une personne. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir classe sociale.
class identity (self-reported) of
has class identity (reported)
a classe sociale déclarée
Describes a person's reported class identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. For further information about this property, see social class.
Décrit la classe social déclarée d'une personne. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir classe sociale.
class identity (reported) of
language known
maîtrise une langue
language known (self-reported)
maîtrise une langue (autodéclaré)
language known (reported)
maîtrise une langue (déclaré)
natively known language
langue native
natively known language (self-reported)
langue native (autodéclarée)
natively known language (reported)
langue native (déclarée)
Knowledge of the language for speaking, writing, or reading, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
Capacité d'écrire ou de lire une langue.
Self-reported knowledge of the language for speaking, writing, or reading, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. For further information about this property, see linguistic ability (spoken and/or writen).
Le sujet déclare maîtriser une langue à l'oral ou à l'écrit. Pour plus d'information sur cette propriété, voir aptitude linguistique (écrit ou parlé).
Reported knowledge of the language for speaking, writing, or reading, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. For further information about this property, see linguistic ability (spoken and/or writen).
language known of
language known (self-reported) of
language known (reported) of
Knowledge of the language, acquired during a person’s upbringing, for speaking, writing or reading, which may be self-reported or reported by another, and with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type.
Capacité d'écrire ou de lire une langue acquise dès l'enfance. Comme pour d'autres formes culturelles, un individu peut avoir plus d'une propriété ou descripteur de ce type.
Self-reported knowledge of the language, acquired during a person’s upbringing, for speaking, writing, or reading, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context.
Connaissance parlée, écrite ou lue d'une langue acquise durant l'éducation, qui peut être autodéclarée ou assignée par une autre personne, accompagné par le contexte fourni par le contexte de forme culturelle en contexte lorsqu'il est disponible. Comme pour d'autres formes culturelles, un individu peut avoir plus d'une propriété ou descripteur de ce type.
Reported knowledge of the language, acquired during a person’s upbringing, for speaking, writing, or reading, with accompanying context, where present, provided by cultural form context.
Le sujet déclare lire et écrire une langue maîtrisée depuis l'enfance.
natively known language of
natively known language (self-reported) of
natively known language (reported) of
has sexual identity
a une orientation sexuelle
Describes a person's sexual identity, which may be self-reported or reported by another, with accompanying context, where present, provided by sexuality context. As with other cultural forms, an individual may have more than one property or descriptor of this type. For further information about this property, see sexuality.
Décrit la sexualité d'une personne. Comme que pour les autres formes culturelles, une même personne peut cumuler plus d'une propriété ou description de ce type. Pour plus d'informations sur cette propriété, voir sexualité.
has sexual identity (self-reported)
a une orientation sexuelle (autodéclarée)
Describes a person's self-reported sexual identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by sexuality context. For more information, see sexuality and sexuality context.
Décrit la sexualité autodéclarée d'une personne. Pour plus d'information, voir sexualité et sexualité en contexte.
has sexual identity (reported)
a une orientation sexuelle (déclarée)
This describes a person's reported sexual identity, with accompanying context, where present, provided by sexuality context. For more information, see sexuality and sexuality context.
Décrit la sexualité déclarée d'une personne. Pour plus d'information, voir sexualité et sexualité en contexte.
sexual identity of
sexual identity (self-reported) of
sexual identity (reported) of
textual label
étiquettes textuelles
Collection of ambiguous or overloaded labels associated with contested concepts.
Ensemble des étiquettes ambigues au sein du jeu d'étiquettes d'Orlando.
white identity
identité blanche
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of whiteness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "White" cultural identities (e.g. the cultural forms of white, white in the discursive context of ethnicity, and white, white in the discursive context of race or colour).
Une sous-classe d'Étiquettes Textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité de la blancheur de peau en tant que charactérique physique associée à diverses formes culturelles. Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «blanches» (par exemple blanc, blanc).
black identity
identité noir
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of blackness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "Black" (e.g. black, black) cultural identities.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité de la noirceur de peau en tant que charactérique physique associée à diverses formes culturelles. Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «noires» (par exemple noir, noir).
Eurasian identity
identité Eurasian
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of the term Eurasian as associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "Eurasian" (e.g. eurasian) cultural identities.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité du terme «eurasien·ne». Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «eurasiennes» (par exemple eurasien)
Jewish identity
identité Juif
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of Jewishness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "Jewish" (e.g. Jewish, Jewish) cultural identities.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité de la juidaïcité. Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «juives» (par exemple Juif, Juif).
english
English identity
identité anglais
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of Englishness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "English" (e.g. ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG, England) cultural identities.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité du terme «anglais·e». Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «anglaises» (par exemple ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG, Angleterre).
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of manhood, masculinity, or maleness as associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "man" (e.g. man, cis man/cis male) cultural identities. Where associated terms are applied to younger individuals, gendered variants, such as “boy” for “man”, are understood to apply.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité de la masculinité, ou de la virilité. Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «masculines» (par exemple homme, homme cisgenre).
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of womanhood, femininity, or femaleness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "woman" (e.g. woman, trans woman/trans female) cultural identities. Where associated terms are applied to younger individuals, gendered variants, such as “girl” for “woman”, are understood to apply.
Une sous-classe d'étiquettes textuelles, cette étiquette discursive reflète l'ambiguité de la féminité. Elle permet de compiler et de rechercher les multiples instances d'identités culturelles «féminines» (par exemple femme, femme trans).
queer identity
A subclass of textual label, this discursive label reflects the ambiguity of queerness associated with different cultural forms. It provides a means of aggregating and searching multiple instances of "Queer" (e.g. genderqueer) cultural identities.
friends and associates context
contexte ami·e·s et relations
Friends and connections context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as friends and connections contexts discuss a broad spectrum of social relations ranging from friendship to enmities and casual associations. Other context annotations treat related aspects of social connections, including leisure context and intimate relationship context.
Le contexte des amis et des connexions est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations saisies en tant que contexte amis et relations abordent un large éventail de liens sociaux, allant de l’amitié aux conflits en passant par les relations éphémères. D'autres annotations contextuelles traitent des aspects liés aux rapports sociaux, notamment les loisirs et les relations intimes.
friends and associates event
An event related to an friends and associates context.
has interpersonal relationship with
a relation interpersonnelle avec
Indicates personal knowledge of someone, covering a broad spectrum of social relations ranging from friendship to enmities and casual associations: it can include a writer having coffee with Samuel Johnson on one notable day, without needing a historical record of whether they were necessarily friends, through to substantial longlasting relationships. See also has intimate relationship with, has erotic relationship with, has possibly erotic relationship with.
interpersonal relationship
relation interpersonnelle
has cohabitant
Describes a relationship of cohabitation which may or may not be an intimate or erotic relationship, since historical evidence with respect to the nature of such relationships is often lacking.
cohabitant
intimate relationship context
Intimate relationship context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed intimate relationships discuss any type of intimacy ranging from emotional through psychological or material to sexual.
intimate relationship event
An event related to an intimate relationship context.
intimate relationship
erotic relationship
non-erotic relationship
possibly erotic relationship
has intimate relationship with
Indicates a relationship that involves any type of intimacy ranging from emotional through psychological or material to sexual. Counters the traditional assumption that the only intimate relations happen within the context of marriage or heterosexual relations between sexual partners, challenging the historical and ideological silence placed upon same-sex relationships. For instance, it includes lifelong female friendships, defining psychological connections, or erotically-charged same sex or opposite sex relationships. It may or may not be erotic, and may apply to both brief sexual affairs and lifelong non-sexual relationships. Biographical information concerning these relationships is often scant; therefore this predicate recognizes these relations as significant while not assuming that they were sexual. See has interpersonal relationship with, has erotic relationship with, has possibly erotic relationship with.
has erotic relationship with
Describes intimate relationships that are erotic and/or explicitly sexual. Erotic in this context sometimes suggests that sexuality was an issue in the relationship, whether or not it was acted upon. In not wishing to assume that heterosexual relations between sexual partners are the only standard for intimate relationships, we include both erotic and non-erotic relations as central to a subject’s life and use has erotic relationship with to distinguish between the two. See has interpersonal relationship with, has erotic relationship with, has intimate relationship with, has possibly erotic relationship with.
has non-erotic relationship with
Describes an intimate relationship with the subject that is neither erotic nor sexual in nature. See has interpersonal relationship with, has erotic relationship with, has intimate relationship with, has possibly erotic relationship with.
has possibly erotic relationship with
Describes an intimate relationship that may or may not be erotic in nature. This predicate seeks to redress the historical and ideological silence placed upon same sex relationships; it recognizes that biographical information concerning these relationships often is impossible to uncover. has possibly erotic relationship with registers the possibility of a sexual relationship, when, in the absence of biographical proof, it is impossible to claim such as fact. See has interpersonal relationship with, has erotic relationship with, has intimate relationship with.
has children
Indicates the number of the subject's children. Values range from zero upwards, and modes of counting vary according to context because families and reproduction are complex matters. Children need not necessarily be biologically related to the subject: they may be adopted or otherwise considered a person's child. See related property has reproductive history.
has reproductive history
Describes an aspect of a person's reproductive history. May relate to childlessness, birth control, adoption, abortion, difficulties with childbearing, loss of a child, whether biologically related, adopted, or otherwise considered kin, difficulties with child-bearing. See also the related property has children.
children
reproductive history
unspecified
Some aspect of the subject's reproductive history.
miscarriage
miscarried
Related to a miscarriage of a pregnancy.
stillbirth
still birth
stillborn
Related to a stillborn child.
abortion
aborted
Related to an abortion of a pregnancy.
birth control
contraception
family planning
Related to birth control.
venereal disease
syphilis
venereal
Related to venereal disease.
childlessness
childless
no children
no surviving children
Related to voluntary or involuntary childlessness.
adoption
Related to adoption.
family context
contexte familial
Family Context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Family Context provide information about and discussions of a person's familial relations. Family relationships are social bonds assumed between a group of people affiliated by blood, marriage, co-residence, or other affiliation. For more information, see About: Family.
Le contexte familial est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations saisies en tant que contexte familial fournissent des informations et des discussions sur les rapports familiaux d'une personne. Les rapports familiaux sont des liens sociaux contractés entre un groupe de personnes liées par le sang, le mariage, la cohabitation ou autre affiliation. Pour plus d'informations, voir About: Family.
family event
An event related to an family context.
partner
husband
relative
ancestor
forebear
descendent
sibling
sister
brother
stepsibling
half-sibling
stepsister
stepbrother
half-sister
Comment: This term is a CWRC-specific addition not in the original Orlando tag set.
half-brother
child
daughter
son
grandchild
granddaughter
grandson
stepchild
stepdaughter
stepson
parent
mother
father
stepparent
stepmother
stepfather
grandparent
grandmother
grandfather
aunt
uncle
niece
nephew
cousin
has guardian
Relates a person (usually a minor) to another, usually an adult who is charged with their care. This term stretches beyond the legal definition of "guardian" to include a broader social relation between dependant and dependee (e.g.: in loco parentis)
guardian of
tuteur (‑trice) / gardien (ne)
Une personne placé en charge du bienfait d'un personne mineure.
has partner
Relates two people through a romantic, emotional, or spousal relationship. Distinct from a business or corporate partnership.
Ce terme représente uniquement les relations affectives, amoureuses ou familiales et non des relations d'affaires.
partner of
conjoint de
has wife
Relates a person to a female-identified partner in a marital relationship.
wife of
femme de
has husband
Relates a person to a male-identified partner in a marital relationship.
husband of
mari de
has relative
Has a familial relationship to a person. hasRelative and its subproperties indicate social aspects of familial relations as opposed to biological ones; for example, has mother is not necessarily a consanguineal relationship - although both can be present. Family relationships are subproperties of social relationships. For more information, see About: Family. This property indicates either a general familial relationship or one that is complicated or not easily categorisable in traditional kinship terms.
relative of
liens de famille
has ancestor
Relates a person to an ancestor or forebear, usually at a remove of two generations or more.
ancestor of
ancestor de
has descendent
Relates a person to a descendent, either lineal (that is, descended in a direct line from an ancestor, such as a child, grandchild, great-grandchild and so) or collateral (descended from the line of a brother or sister of a direct ancestor).
descendent of
descendent de
has sibling
Describes a relationship in which two or more individuals share the same parentage.
sibling of
frères et soeurs de
has stepsibling
stepsibling of
has half-sibling
half-sibling of
has sister
Relates a person to a female-identified sibling. Although the term typically refers to consanguineal relationships, it is often used to describe relationships beyond "blood ties".
sister of
soeur de
has brother
Relates a person to a male-identified sibling. Although the term typically refers to consanguineal relationships, it is often used to describe relationships beyond "blood ties."
brother of
frère de
has stepsister
Relates a person to a female-identified stepsibling, that is, a child of the person's stepparent.
stepsister of
has stepbrother
Relates a person to a male-identified stepsibling, that is, a child of the person's stepparent.
stepbrother of
has half-sister
Relates a female-identified person to the someone with whom they have one parent in common.
half-sister of
has half-brother
Relates a male-identified person to the someone with whom they have one parent in common.
half-brother of
has child
Relates a person to a child, consanguineal or otherwise.
child of
enfant de
has daughter
Relates a person to a female-identified child, consanguineal or otherwise.
daughter of
fille de
has son
Relates a person to a male-identified child, consanguineal or otherwise.
son of
fil de
has grandchild
Relates a person to a child of a person's child.
grandchild of
petit enfant de
has granddaughter
Relates a person to a female-identified child of a person's child.
granddaughter of
petite fille de
has grandson
Relates a person to a male-identified child of a person's child.
grandson of
petit fils de
has stepchild
Relates a person to the child of that person's spouse, in contrast to what is commonly referred to as the "biological parent" of said child.
stepchild of
enfant d'un autre mariage
has stepdaughter
Relates a person to a female-identified child of that person's spouse, in contrast to what is commonly referred to as the "biological parent" of said child.
stepdaughter of
belle-fille de
has stepson
Relates a person to a male-identified child of that person's spouse, in contrast to what is commonly referred to as the "biological parent" of said child.
stepson of
beau-fils de
has parent
Relates a person to their father, mother, or, in certain cases, their guardian.
parent of
parent de
has mother
Relates a person to their mother, the female-identified parent, consanguineal or otherwise.
mother of
mère de
has father
Relates a person to their father, the male-identified parent, consanguineal or otherwise.
father of
père de
has stepparent
Relates a person to their stepparent, that is, a parent married to that person's so-called "biological parent", in contrast to a consanguineal relationship.
stepparent of
stepparent de
has stepmother
Relates a person to their stepmother, that is, a parent married to that person's so-called "biological parent", in contrast to a consanguineal relationship.
stepmother of
belle-mère de
Une personne qui prend le rôle d'une mère pour un enfant sans être sa mère biologique. Notez-bien l’ambiguïté avec le text français pour le rôle de la femme d'une soeur or d'un frère.
has stepfather
Relates a person to their stepfather, that is, a parent married to that person's so-called "biological parent", in contrast to a consanguineal relationship.
stepfather of
beau-père de
Une personne qui prend le rôle d'un père pour un enfant sans être son père biologique. Notez-bien l’ambiguïté avec le text français pour le rôle du mari d'une soeur or d'un frère.
has grandparent
Relates a person to the parent of their mother or father.
grandparent of
grandparent de
has grandmother
Relates a person to the mother of their mother or father.
grandmother of
grand-mère de
has grandfather
Relates a person to the father of their mother or father.
grandfather of
grand-père de
has aunt
Relates a person to the sister of their father or mother, but can also refer to any maternal relationship and need not be restricted to a consanguineal relation.
aunt of
tante de
has uncle
Relates a person to the sister of their father or mother, but can also refer to any avuncular relationship and need not be restricted to a consanguineal relation.
uncle of
oncle de
has niece
Relates a person to the daughter of their sibling.
niece of
nièce de
has nephew
Relates a person to the son of their sibling.
nephew of
neveu de
has cousin
Relates a person to the child of their aunt or uncle; a person belonging to the same extended family, consanguineal or otherwise.
cousin of
cousin de
has participant
Associates an event with a person.
Deprecated, with no current equivalence.
Désapprouver sans équivalence.
deprecated
participant of
The event that the Person is associated with.
has role
a un rôle
Associates an event element to a role.
has mapped place
Associates a mapped place with coordinates for its location.
Note: Instances of places and coordinates for mapping are taken from a range of sources, including GeoNames and the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (Getty Research Institute) that have their own classification schemes. Geonames will sometimes categorize places that are now abandoned as "populated places."
Deprecated in favour of instance has location.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance .
has education
a une éducation
Links a person to information about their education in education context.
Relie une personne à des renseignements sur son contexte éducatif.
has credential in
Deprecated in favour of instance has credential.
credential held by
Deprecated in favour of instance credential of.
relates spatially to
Indicates an entity's connection to a geospatial location.
Deprecated in favour of instance has spatial relation to.
Deprecated in favour of instance has interpersonal relationship with.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance a relation interpersonnelle avec.
forebear of
ancêtre de
has literal form
a une forme littérale
personal property
propriété personnelle
A property that is ascribed to a person.
Une propriété qui est attribuée à une personne.
personal property self-reported
propriété personnelle autodéclarée
This is a personal property that is self-reported.
Une propriété personnelle autodéclarée.
blood relative of
liens de sang
Deprecated, with no current equivalence, in favour of definition of family relationships as more fluid and expansive than blood relations.
This sub-class of culturalFormation associates specific concepts and categories with the process of identity formation through cultural processes. Such associations may be or have been embraced by the subject her/himself or attributed by others. The concepts and categories classed as culturalForms are understood to overlap with each other conceptually and in terms of the labels used.
Cette sous-classe de culturalFormation associe des concepts et des catégories spécifiques au processus de formation identitaire à travers les processus culturels. Le sujet elle/lui-même peut ou a pu s'approprier de telles associations, ou d'autres personnes les lui ont attribuées. Les concepts et les catégories classés dans culturalForms se chevauchent en théorie et en terme d'étiquettes utilisés.
Deprecated in favour of object property has a cultural form.
Désapprouver en faveur de la propriété a une forme culturelle.
personal property (self-reported)
propriété de la personne (autodéclarée)
Deprecated in favour of instance personal property self-reported.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance propriété personnelle autodéclarée.
has gender (self declared)
Deprecated in favour of instance has gender identity (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance est de genre (autodéclaré).
has nationality (self declared)
Deprecated in favour of instance has national identity (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance de nationalité (autodéclarée).
has race (self declared)
est de race (autodéclarée)
This describes a person's self-reported identity with respect to race or colour.
has ethnicity (self defined)
Deprecated in favour of instance has ethnic identity (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance d'ethnicité (autodéclarée).
has religious affilication (self defined)
Deprecated in favour of instance has religious affiliation (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance religion (autodéclarée).
has social class (self defined)
de classe sociale (autodéclarés)
Deprecated in favour of instance has class identity (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance a classe sociale autodéclarée.
language known (self declared)
connait la langue (autodéclaré)
Deprecated in favour of instance language known (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance maîtrise une langue (autodéclaré).
natively known language (self declared)
a une langue maternelle (autodéclaré)
has sexual orientation (self declared)
Deprecated in favour of instance has sexual identity (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance a une orientation sexuelle (autodéclarée).
has geographic heritage (self declared)
Deprecated in favour of instance has geographic heritage (self-reported).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance a un héritage géographique (autodéclaré).
has Sub Element
a un sous évènement
Associates a sub event to a master event.
has Element
a un élément
Associates an event or event element.
has Peformance
a une interprétation
Associates an event or performance to a performance.
Deprecated in favour of property has Element.
Désapprouver en faveur de la propriété a un élément.
identity
The identity of the person who committed the act.
Deprecated from previous Orlando Ontology design.
Désapprouver de l'ancienne ontology Orlando.
in role
The role taken on by this actor.
Désapprouver de l'ancienne ontologie Orlando.
A role of a Person or Actor in some Event, CreativeWork, or Organisation.
Le rôle d'une Personne ou d'un·e Acteur·ice au sein d'un Évènement, d'une Œuvre Créative ou une Organisation.
role
Rôle
intimate relationships context
Intimate relationships context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed intimate relationships discuss any type of intimacy ranging from emotional through psychological or material to sexual.
Deprecated in favour of class intimate relationship context.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe [http://sparql.cwrc.ca/testing/cwrc#IntimateRelationshipContext].
wealth context
A significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Wealth Context provide information about and discussions of a person's economic standing, including inheritance, property ownership, pensions, and personal financial disasters. See also the occupation context and cultural form context, particularly for social class context.
Deprecated in favour of class economic context.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe contexte économique.
organization
A social or corporate institution such as a publisher, school, political group, or company.
Deprecated in favour of class org:formalOrganization
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe org:formalOrganization.
race or ethnicity
race ou ethnicité
Deprecated in favour of class race or colour and ethnicity.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe race ou couleur et ethnicité.
linguistic ability (spoken and/or writen)
aptitude linguistique (écrit ou parlé)
Describes a person's proficiency in a language (speaking, reading, or writing).
Décrit l'aptitude d'une personne pour parler, lire ou écrire une langue.
Deprecated in favour of class geographic heritage.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe héritage géographique.
language context
contexte linguistique
Language Context is a significant subclass of context. Annotations typed as Cultural Formation Context provide information about and discussions of a person's linguistic ability or abilities. Language Context provides depth to more granular indications of linguistic ability indicated through the property Language.
Langue en Contexte est une sous-classe de contexte importante. Les annotations entrées en tant que Contexte de Formation Culturelle fournissent des informations et des discussions sur la ou les aptitudes linguistiques d'une personne. Langue en Contexte fournit de la profondeur aux indications granulaires sur les aptitudes linguistiques grâce à la propriété Langage.
Deprecated in favour of class cultural form context.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe forme culturelle en contexte.
racial, colour or ethnicity context
contexte racial, de couleur de peau ou d'ethnicité
Ethnicity Context is a significant subclass of context. It is associated with the cultural form subclass Ethnicity, and sometimes other intersecting Cultural Forms. Annotations typed as Ethnicity Context provide information about and discussions of a person's subjectivity or experience with regards to their perceived or self-reported ethnicity. Ethnicity Context provides depth to more granular categorizations of a person indicated by the properties has ethnic identity or has ethnic identity (self-reported).
Deprecated in favour of class race or ethnicity context.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe contexte ethnique ou racial.
cultural formation
formation culturelle
Cultural formation refers to the processes of lived social subjectivities of people and is often combined with predicates indicating the identity positions as they relate to the following discursive constructions of Class, Religion, Ethnicity, Gender, GeographicHeritage, LinguisticAbility, NationalHeritage, NationalIdentity, PoliticalAffiliation, RaceColour, and Sexuality. These categories are not understood as transhistorical or isolated categories. Rather, they facilitate analysis of how such situationally contingent, changing, and negotiated labels are assigned to or adopted by a particular individual. The tensions endemic to practices of classification demand critical engagement and inquiry into the situatedness of particular cultural identities.
Deprecated in favour of class cultural form.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe forme culturelle.
Sexual Identity
Identité Sexuelle
Deprecated in favour of sexuality term.
Deprecated in favour of class sexuality.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe sexualité.
sex identity
identité sexe
Deprecated in favour of class gender.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe genre.
social class identity
identité classe sociale
A subclass of culturalForms, socialClassIdentity terms associate subjects with a specific social group, recognizing that such categories and their application to individuals are contested and can change over time. The association may be or have been embraced by the subject her/himself or attributed by others. Unlike Notes typed as socialClassContext, which contain detailed discussions of a subject's class position, socialClassIdentity links to a word or phrase signifying a particular construction of class, with particular reference to earlier historical periods in the British Isles. Social class has been variously constructed and theorized, and for women is further complicated by the fact that women were understood to take their social status from fathers and/or husbands. The terminology used here reflects quite basic social groupings that intersect with other factors such as wealth.
Une sous-catégorie de culturalForms, les termes de socialClassIdentity associent les sujets à des groupes sociaux spécifiques, en prenant en compte le fait que ces catégories et leur application aux individus sont contestables et peuvent changer au fil du temps. L'association à une classe sociale peut ou a pu être assumée par le sujet elle/lui-même ou attribuée par d'autres. Contrairement aux notes comme socialClassContext, qui contiennent les détails des discussions autour de le statut social du sujet, socialClassIdentity relie un mot ou une phrase référant à une classe spécifique qui renvoie à des périodes historiques antérieures spécifiques des Îles Britanniques. La notion de classe sociale a été construite et théorisée de diverses manières, et est d'autant plus complexe pour les femmes puisqu'elles étaient censées adopter le statut social de leur père et/ou de leur mari. La terminologie ici utilisée réfère à des groupes sociaux élémentaires qui se recoupent avec d'autres facteurs comme la richesse.
Deprecated in favour of class social class.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe classe sociale.
Event Element
élément d'évènement
An event element by an agent in an event under a specific context, be it in a role, character or responsibility.
performance
interprétation
Leistung
A performance by an agent in an event under a specific context, be it in a role, character or responsibility.
Deprecated in favour of class Event Element.
Désapprouver en faveur de la classe élément d'évènement.
A person performing a certain role within an event.
Deprecated with no current equivalence.
Deprecated in favour of instance bisexuality.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance bisexualité.
Deprecated in favour of instance celibacy.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance célibat.
Deprecated in favour of instance frigidity.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance frigidité.
Deprecated in favour of instance promiscuity.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance promiscuité.
Deprecated in favour of instance libertinism.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance libertinage.
"The Women's Enfranchisement Act, 1930, was an act of the Parliament of South Africa which granted white women aged 21 and older the right to vote and to run for office. It also had the effect of diluting the limited voting power of non-white people (in the Cape Province) by effectively doubling the number of white voters. It was enacted by the National Party government of Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog. The first general election at which women could vote was the election of 17 May 1933. At that election Leila Reitz (wife of Deneys Reitz) was elected as the first female MP, representing Parktown for the South African Party. The act enfranchised all white women, while certain property qualifications still applied to men. In June 1931 the Franchise Laws Amendment Act, 1931 enfranchised all white men while retaining the property qualifications for non-white voters, thus further diluting the non-white vote. The delimitation of electoral divisions was still based on the white male population until April 1937, when the Electoral Quota Act, 1937 altered it to be based on the whole white population. The Women's Enfranchisement Act was repealed in 1946 when the franchise laws were consolidated into the Electoral Consolidation Act, 1946." (DBpedia, 2018)
Deprecated in favour of instance suffrage movement.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Droit de vote.
Parti Tory (Royaume-Uni)
"The Tories were members of two political parties which existed, sequentially, in the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Great Britain and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York (who eventually became James II of England and VII of Scotland). This party ceased to exist as an organised political entity in the early 1760s, although it was used as a term of self-description by some political writers. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. The Earl of Liverpool was succeeded by fellow Tory Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, whose term included the Catholic Emancipation, which occurred mostly due to the election of Daniel O'Connell as a Catholic MP from Ireland. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, many of which were controlled by Tories. In the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, which began to transform the Tories into the Conservative Party. However, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party, whose members are commonly still referred to as Tories." (DBpedia, 2017)
Deprecated in favour of instance Conservative Party (UK).
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Parti Conservateur (Royaume-Uni).
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as English as an inherited national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner un héritage national anglais.
Deprecated in favour of foreign instance ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG.
Welsh
Gallois
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as Welsh as an inherited national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner un héritage national gallois.
Deprecated in favour of foreign instance ISO 3166-2:GB-WLS.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance ISO 3166-2:GB-WLS.
Indicates a subject's identification with or labelling as English as a national identity.
Indique qu'un sujet s'identifie à ou s'est vu assigner une identité nationale anglaise.
Deprecated in favour of instance eurasian.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance eurasien.
Jacobism
Club des Jacobins
"The Society of the Friends of the Constitution, after 1792 renamed Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality (French: Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité), commonly known as the Jacobin Club (Club des Jacobins) or just collectively Jacobins, was the most famous and influential political club in the development of the French Revolution. Initially founded by anti-Royalist deputies from Brittany, the Club grew into a nationwide republican movement, with a membership estimated at a half million or more. The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the early 1790s, the radical Mountain and the more moderate Girondists. In 1792–3, the Girondists (led by Brissot and including Thomas Paine) dominated the Jacobin Club and led the country. Believing that revolutionary France would not be accepted by its neighbours, they called for an aggressive foreign policy and forced war on Austria. The Girondists were the dominant faction when the Jacobins overthrew the monarchy and created the republic. When the Republic failed to deliver the unrealistic gains that had been expected, they lost popularity. The Girondists sought to curb fanatical revolutionary violence, and were therefore accused by the Mountain of being royalist sympathisers. The National Guard eventually switched its support from the Girondists to the Mountain, allowing the Mountain to stage a coup d'etat. In May 1793, led by Maximilien de Robespierre, the leaders of the Mountain faction succeeded in sidelining the Girondist faction and controlled the government until July 1794. Their time in government was characterized by radically progressive legislation imposed with very high levels of political violence. In June 1793, they approved the Constitution of Year 1 which introduced universal male suffrage for the first time in history. In September 1793, twenty-one prominent Girondists were guillotined, beginning the Reign of Terror. In October, during the Terror, the new constitution was ratified in a referendum which most eligible voters avoided participating in. The Mountain executed tens of thousands of opponents nationwide, ostensibly to suppress the Vendée insurrection and the Federalist insurrections, and to prevent any other insurrections, during the War of the First Coalition. In 1794, the fall of Robespierre pushed the Mountain out of power. The Jacobin Club was closed and many of its remaining leaders, notably Robespierre, were themselves executed. Today, Jacobin and Jacobinism are used in a variety of senses. In Britain, where the term "Jacobin" has been linked primarily to the Mountain, it is sometimes used as a pejorative for radical, left-wing revolutionary politics, especially when it exhibits dogmatism and violent repression. In France, "Jacobin" now generally indicates a supporter of a centralized republican state and strong central government powers and/or supporters of extensive government intervention to transform society. It is also used in other related senses, indicating proponents of a state education system which strongly promotes and inculcates civic values, and proponents of a strong nation-state capable of resisting any undesirable foreign interference." (DBpedia, 2017)
«La Société des amis de la Constitution, plus connue ensuite sous le nom de club des Jacobins, est le plus célèbre des clubs de la Révolution française. «C'est ici que s'est préparée la Révolution, dit Georges Couthon en 1793, c'est ici qu'elle s'est faite, c'est ici que se sont préparés tous les grands événements». Appelé d'abord Club breton, le club tient son nom du couvent des Jacobins de la rue Saint-Honoré (Collège des Jacobins) où il s'est installé en 1789, dans une salle louée par le couvent de l'Annonciation, fondé entre 1611 et 1613 par Sébastien Michaëlis comme extension du Couvent des Jacobins de la rue Saint-Jacques (Jacobus en latin). Le Club des Jacobins est une société de pensée qui a constitué, pendant la Révolution française, à la fois un groupe de pression et un réseau d'une remarquable efficacité. L'action du club, essentielle dès le début de 1790, devient dominante entre 1792 et 1794. À cette époque, l'adjectif «jacobin» signifie partisan de la politique du Comité de salut public. À la fin de 1793, environ 6 000 sociétés de même type sont en correspondance avec lui dans toute la France. La chute de Robespierre marque la fin du grand rôle politique exercé par le club et entraîne sa dissolution en novembre 1794. Depuis cette époque, le nom et l'adjectif s'appliquent à un homme, une femme ou un courant politique hostile à toute idée d'affaiblissement et de démembrement de l'État.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Deprecated in favour of instance Jacobinism.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Jacobinisme.
Deprecated in favour of instance England.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Angleterre.
Deprecated in favour of instance English identity.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance identité anglais.
femelle
man/male
homme/mâle
Deprecated in favour of instance man.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance homme.
Woman/Female
Femme/Femelle
Deprecated in favour of instance woman.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance femme.
Transman/Transmale
Homme Trans
Deprecated in favour of instance trans man/trans male.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance homme trans.
Transwoman/Transfemale
Femme Trans
Deprecated in favour of instance trans woman/trans female.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance femme trans.
Male
Mâle
Deprecated in favour of instance man/male.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance homme/mâle.
Female
Femelle
Deprecated in favour of instance Woman/Female.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Femme/Femelle.
Unknown
Inconnue
Deprecated in favour of instance white.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance blanc.
Deprecated in favour of instance Jewish.
Désapprouver en faveur de l'instance Juif.
"Refers to the monotheistic religion of the Jewish people, central to which is the belief that the ancient Israelites experienced God's presence in human events. Jews believe that the one God delivered the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt, revealed the structure of communal and individual life to them, and chose them to be a holy nation of people able to set an example for all humankind. The Hebrew Bible and Talmud are the two primary sources for Judaism's spiritual and ethical principles. The religion, which traces its origins to Abraham, places more emphasis on expressing beliefs through ritual rather than through abstract doctrine. The Sabbath, beginning at sunset on Friday and ending at sunset on Saturday, is the central religious observance; there is also an annual cycle of religious festivals and days of fasting. Judaism has had a diverse history of development over almost 4000 years, with a number of resulting branches in modern times, namely Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform." (Getty, 2017)
«Le judaïsme (du grec Ιουδαϊσμός, yiddish : יידישקייט yiddishkeit, ladino : ג'ודאיסמו Djudaismo, allemand : Judenthum, hébreu : יהדות yahadout) est variablement défini comme «une forme de vie religieuse dont la caractéristique essentielle est la croyance à un Être suprême, auteur — de quelque manière qu'on conçoive son action — de l'univers qu'il gouverne par sa providence», ou comme «la religion des Juifs, ainsi que la théologie, la loi et les traditions culturelles du peuple juif», ou comme «une religion […], une culture — résultat ou fondement de la religion, mais ayant un devenir propre, […] une sensibilité diffuse faite de quelques idées et souvenirs, de quelques coutumes et émotions, d'une solidarité avec les juifs persécutés en tant que juifs» ou comme «l'ensemble des rituels et des autres pratiques, des croyances et des valeurs, des loyautés historiques et politiques qui constituent l'allégeance au peuple d'Israël». Cette pluralité est tributaire d'une part de l'évolution du terme au cours de l'histoire, celui-ci désignant originellement l'ensemble des traits caractérisant le peuple juif, constitué des descendants des Israélites provenant de l'antique terre d'Israël et de ceux qui les ont rejoints par la conversion, et d'autre part de la différence de perception selon l'appartenance ou non au judaïsme. Il a souvent été représenté comme une «religion juive» antithétique de la religion chrétienne, alors que des Juifs le définissent aussi au-delà ou en dehors du fait religieux, certains philosophes, comme Daniel Boyarin ou Bernard-Henri Lévy, allant jusqu'à dire que la religion en tant que théologie édifiée par une croyance, des dogmes et une instance suprême, centrale et doctrinale «n'appartient pas à l'esprit du judaïsme».» (DBpedia, 2017)
Deprecated in favour of instance Judaism.
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entrepreneurial industrialism
entrepreneuriat industriel
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Deprecated in favour of instance English.
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Deprecated in favour of instance ISO 3166-2:GB-ENG.
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French
Français
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Église d'Irlande
"The Church of Ireland (Irish: Eaglais na hÉireann Scots: Kirk o Airlann) is a Christian church in Ireland and an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. It is organised on an all-Ireland basis and is the second-largest Christian church on the island after the Catholic Church. Like other Anglican churches, it has retained elements of pre-Reformation practice, notably its episcopal polity, while rejecting the primacy of the Bishop of Rome. Nevertheless, in theological and liturgical matters, it incorporates many principles of the Reformation, particularly those espoused during the English Reformation. The church self identifies as being both Catholic and Reformed. Within the church, differences exist between those members who are more Catholic-leaning (high church) and those who are more Protestant-leaning (low church or evangelical). For historical and cultural reasons, the Church of Ireland is generally identified as a Protestant church. The Church of Ireland is the second-largest in the Republic of Ireland, with around 130,000 members, and the third-largest in Northern Ireland, with around 260,000 members." (DBpedia, 2017)
«L'Église d'Irlande (irlandais : Eaglais na hÉireann, anglais : Church of Ireland) est une communauté religieuse autonome de la communion anglicane, dont le rayon d'action touche la République d'Irlande et l'Irlande du Nord. Comme d'autres Églises anglicanes, elle s'affirme «catholique» et «réformée». Quand l'Église d'Angleterre rompt avec le Pape et l'Église catholique romaine, l'Église d'Irlande évolue également vers la Réforme, gardant son statut juridique et ses possessions, si sa doctrine change. Ainsi, de nos jours, l'Église, dans ses cathédrales et ses églises, conserve largement l'héritage des constructions médiévales de l'île. La nouvelle Église indépendante n'est cependant pas suivie par la majorité de la population ; l'Église catholique romaine conserve le soutien de la plus grande partie des habitants, et ce jusqu'à aujourd'hui. En dépit de son caractère minoritaire, cependant, l'Église d'Irlande conserve le statut de religion d'État jusqu'au désétablissement de 1869, quand Gladstone abolit l'Acte d'établissement. Le nombre d'églises est tombé brusquement au cours du XXe siècle, particulièrement en République d'Irlande, après l'indépendance ; le dernier recensement de la République montre un exemple rare de résistance à la crise de la foi. Aujourd'hui, l'Église d'Irlande est, après l'Église catholique, la deuxième plus importante Église de l'île d'Irlande. C'est également la plus importante Église protestante de la République d'Irlande et le deuxième plus importante d'Irlande du Nord, après l'Église presbytérienne d'Irlande. Elle est gouvernée par un synode général du clergé et des laïcs et organisée en douze diocèses. Elle a à sa tête l'archevêque d'Armagh, qui porte le titre de «Primat de toute l'Irlande». L'archevêque actuel est Richard Clarke qui a succédé le à Alan Harper ; l'autre archevêque est celui de Dublin John Neill.» (DBpedia, 2017)
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Deprecated in favour of instance Baptist Christianity.
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Roman Catholic
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Science CHRÉTIENNE
"Refers to a Christian denomination and movement founded by Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) that seeks to reinstate the Christian message of salvation from all evil, including sickness and disease as well as sin. Eddy, a semi-invalid who was interested in cures not involving medicine, claimed a recovery from a bad injury without medical assistance in 1866. Afterwards, she devoted herself to restoring the healing emphasis of early Christianity. In 1875 she finished writing the first edition of the "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures." This work and the Bible are the principal texts of the movement and importance has been laid on establishing reading rooms where these works can make their own appeal to readers. The "Christian Science Monitor" is also published by the denomination. Christian Science believes that ignorance is at the root of human unease and thus "dis-ease." Instead of seeking medical treatment, special Christian Science healers are to be consulted for spiritual healing. Health, happiness, and holiness can be restored by applying to all aspects of life practices and attitudes in keeping with the principal of divine harmony. The first Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 in Boston and its headquarters remain there." (Getty, 2017)
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Congregational Church
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Dissenters
"One who dissents or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term "dissenter" is, however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one reason or another, separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled "Protesting Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, however, restricted to the "Protestant Dissenters" referred to in sec. ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. "(Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911)
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Églises dissidentes
"English Dissenters were Christians who separated from the Church of England in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. A dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, "to disagree") is one who disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, etc. English Dissenters opposed state interference in religious matters, and founded their own churches, educational establishments, and communities; some emigrated to the New World. They originally agitated for a wide-reaching Protestant Reformation of the Established Church, and triumphed briefly under Oliver Cromwell." (DBpedia, 2017)
«Les Dissidents anglais (en anglais : English Dissenters ou nonconformists) sont des protestants anglais qui firent sécession de l'Église d'Angleterre1. Ils s'opposaient à l'interférence de l'État dans les affaires religieuses et fondèrent leurs propres communautés du xvie au xviiie siècle. Les Dissidents triomphèrent un temps lors du gouvernement d'Oliver Cromwell, mais après la Restauration de la monarchie, en 1660, l'épiscopat fut rétabli et les droits civiques des Dissidents limités, dès les années 1660, par une série de lois dont l'Act of Uniformity, le Corporation Act et le Test Act. Ce n'est qu'en 1828 que ces lois discriminatoires sont abrogées.» (DBpedia, 2017)
Lollards
«Les Lollards sont les membres ou sympathisants d'un mouvement de contestation religieuse et sociale apparu en Angleterre au XIVe siècle. — John Ball » (DBpedia, 2017)
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Pagan
païen (ou payen)
"Paganism is a term that developed among the Christian community of southern Europe during late antiquity to describe religions other than their own, Judaism, or Islam–the three Abrahamic religions. Throughout Christendom, it continued to be used, typically in a derogatory sense. In the 19th century, it was re-adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-description by practitioners of contemporary pagan, or neo-pagan, religious movements. There has been much scholarly argument as to the origin of the term paganism. Paganism has also been understood by some[who?] to include any non-Abrahamic religions, but this is generally[who?] seen as insulting by adherents of those religions. While paganism is often considered to exclude monotheism and to express a worldview that is pantheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, there are some monotheistic pagans. Once monotheistic religions, such as Christianity and Islam, started to become more prominent (in processes known as Christianization and Islamization), names to encompass polytheistic worshipers started to develop; some of these include Hellene, pagan, and heathen, and at times these names were used as slurs. Modern knowledge of old pagan religions comes from several sources, including: anthropological field research records, the evidence of archaeological artifacts, and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to the classical world. Before the rise of monotheistic religions, most people practiced some type of polytheism. Many of these religions started to die out, and eventually they became extinct. In some cases, elements of polytheistic belief systems continued to exist in folklore. Paganism would later be studied during the Renaissance and Romantic era. Forms of these religions, influenced by various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, exist today and are known as contemporary or modern paganism, also referred to as Neo-paganism." (DBpedia, 2017)
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Quaker
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Dissenting Christianity
Dissidence anglaise
«Les Dissidents anglais (en anglais : English Dissenters ou nonconformists) sont des protestants anglais qui firent sécession de l'Église d'Angleterre. Ils s'opposaient à l'interférence de l'État dans les affaires religieuses et fondèrent leurs propres communautés du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle. Les Dissidents triomphèrent un temps lors du gouvernement d'Oliver Cromwell, mais après la Restauration de la monarchie, en 1660, l'épiscopat fut rétabli et les droits civiques des Dissidents limités, dès les années 1660, par une série de lois dont l'Act of Uniformity, le Corporation Act et le Test Act. Ce n'est qu'en 1828 que ces lois discriminatoires sont abrogées. Parmi les Dissidents les plus connus, on peut citer le fondateur de la secte des Puritains Henry Jacob (en) (1563-1624), l'éditeur Joseph Johnson (1738-1809), la mystique Jane Leade (1623-1704), le philosophe Richard Price (1723-1791), ou encore le chimiste et théologien Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), ainsi que le fondateur d'une académie dissidente à Kendal (Cumbria), le révérend Caleb Rotherham, qui instruisit l'un des pères de la Révolution industrielle, le fondeur et beau-frère de Joseph Priestley, John Wilkinson»(DBpedia, 2017)Voir aussi: Non-conformistes — Wikipédia
Rational Dissenter
"An 18th-century, group much closer to the Anglicanism of their day than other Dissenting sects; however, they believed that state religions impinged on the freedom of conscience. They were fiercely opposed to the hierarchical structure of the Established Church and the financial ties between it and the government."(DBpedia, 2017)
Deprecated in favour of instance Dissenting Christianity.
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Église unitarienne
"Unitarian church usually refers to a church (either a single church or a group of churches and/or its followers) which follows Unitarianism, a Christian theology. It can also more broadly refer to a church which is a member of an umbrella group with "Unitarian" in its title, such as the Unitarian Universalist Association in the U.S., the Canadian Unitarian Council, and similar bodies." (DBpedia, 2017)
unitarianChurch
Deprecated in favour of instance Unitarianism.
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black (race)
noir (race)
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All the Digital Humanists Are White, All the Nerds Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave
First edition of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, a project, started in 1979, of the Getty Art History Information Program. The work presents, in a faceted hierarchical structure, a standard vocabulary for the field of art and architecture. Two displays are provided: the hierarchical, which includes seven facets (associated concepts, physical attributes, styles and periods, agents, activities, materials, objects), and the alphabetical display including all terms.
Blood, bread and poetry: The location of the poet.
Cultural (Re-)formations: Structuring a Linked Data Ontology for Intersectional Identities
The Proceedings of the Digital Humanities Conference
Cybertypes: Race, ethnicity, and identity on the internet
If the publication of Debates in the Digital Humanities in 2012 marked the âdigital humanities moment,â this bookâthe first in a series of annual volumesâwill chart the possibilities and tensions of the field as it grows.
Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine,Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics
Essentially speaking: Feminism, nature and difference
Feminism and psychoanalysis: a critical dictionary
How We Think: Digital Media and Contemporary Technogenesis
Semantic Web Services: Concepts, Technologies, and Applications
Ladies of Llangollen: Letters and Journals of Lady Eleanor Butler (1739-1829) and Sarah Ponsonby (1755-1831) from the National Library of Wales
Lesbian Lists: A Look at Lesbian Culture, History, and Personalities
Lesbian Lives: Biographies of Women from the Ladder
My Gender Workbook: How to Become a Real Man, a Real Woman, the Real You, or Something Else Entirely
Nobody Passes: Rejecting the Rules of Gender and Conformity
Orlando: Women's Writing in the British Isles from the Beginnings to the Present
Psychopathia Sexualis, with Especial Reference to Contrary Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Legal Study
Rachel/Racial Theory: Reverse Passing in the Curious Case of Rachel Dolezal
Representing race and ethnicity in american fiction, 1789- 1964.
Workshop on Search and Exploration of XRated Information (SEXI 2013)
New frontiers of space, bodies and gender
Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective
Situated Neuroscience: Exploring Biologies of Diversity
Sorting things in: Feminist knowledge representation and changing modes of scholarly production
Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present
The House That Jill Built: A Lesbian Nation in Formation
The Intermediate Sex: A Study of Some Transitional Types of Men and Women
The Ladies of Llangollen: A Study in Romantic Friendship
The Paradox of Privacy: Revisiting a Core Library Value in an Age of Big Data and Linked Data
The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader
The Story of the Orlando Project: Personal Reflections
The curious identity of Michael Field and its implications for humanities research with the semantic web.
2013 IEEE International Conference on Big Data
International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education
Newly translated and unabridged in English for the first time, Simone de Beauvoir's masterwork is a powerful analysis of the Western notion of "woman," and a groundbreaking exploration of inequality and otherness. This long-awaited new edition reinstates significant portions of the original French text that were cut in the first English translation. Vital and groundbreaking, Beauvoir's pioneering and impressive text remains as pertinent today as it was sixty years ago, and will continue to provoke and inspire generations of men and women to come. Overview: Newly translated and unabridged in English for the first time, Simone de Beauvoir's masterwork is a powerful analysis of the Western notion of "woman," and a groundbreaking exploration of inequality and otherness. This long-awaited new edition reinstates significant portions of the original French text that were cut in the first English translation. Vital and groundbreaking, Beauvoir's pioneering and impressive text remains as pertinent today as it was sixty years ago, and will continue to provoke and inspire generations of men and women to come.
The value of the statistically insignificant
Volatile bodies: toward a corporeal feminism
When owl:sameAs Isnât the Same: An Analysis of Identity in Linked Data
Why are the Digital Humanities so white? Or thinking the histories of race and computation.
Doing Digital Humanities: Practice, Training, Research
differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies